Afobazol - I not mad after divorce

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Advantages: it becomes a normal sleep

The drug Afobazol really helped me during the divorce. I always thought that I a strong man, sleep absolutely disappeared, became very irritable, I almost got fired because of my uncontrollable aggression, he was reprimanded.

I wanted to get back my wife, but she said it was too late. I went to the pharmacy and asked any drug. pharmacist advised me Afobazol.

I accept as written in the instructions, I took pills for a week, just got better. Another great that no side effects.

Afobazol - Helped to gave up smoking

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Advantages: support for smoking cessation

Disadvantages: It does not act on the first day of reception

I'm trying to give up smoking. I have been smoking since the age of 13, since high school. Sometimes throwing, sometimes I started again. But my wife was pregnant, I decided it was time to end smoking. after given up smoking, began to get nervous. friend advised me to take Afobazol.

I took 3 times a day. I took it 2 months! Negative side effects are not observed. I became more balanced, sleep better, like even more energy. I began to work longer to keep up. In general, a positive impression about the drug helped give up smoking.

Pills Afobazol - Great drug

Attention! Before application of drugs, consult with a specialist!

Advantages: effective

I start taking Afobazol, when there were many entrance exams, the nerves, the choice of universities, moving to another city, and of other. It was hard, but my mother started to give me Afobazol, and I gradually calmed down, and now all at any unclear situation, accept “Afobazol’. Besides, it is not addictive, that's great.

Work of Genes - Additive Genes of Bacteria

Microbiologist says about Molecular cell based toxin-antitoxin new systems and the exposure action of antibiotics. As the system "toxin - antitoxin" bacteria help cells fight with antibiotics? What happens when a cell loss of genes encoding the toxin and antitoxin? How to stimulate the growth of cells contributes to the treatment of certain diseases?

About addiction, or addiction, or dependence, not heard, probably just lazy. And probably, many believe that this is a purely human characteristic. The interesting thing is that the cells can also have dependencies. It's Molecular dependence. And there, in contrast to this addiction, if there is one, the mechanisms are very well known. In English literature, this is called addiction models. This is some interesting protein molecules that tend to make the bacterial cell all the time to maintain their confidence. Because, if the cell suddenly lose this kind of molecule, it will die. This is a real addiction.

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How exactly does it work? The principle is very simple, again based on molecular interactions. Imagine that in the cell there are two genes that code for two proteins, two products, one of which is a toxin capable of killing the cell, and the other is an antitoxin. Antitoxin - it is simply a molecule binds to a toxin and does not allow him to show their toxic effect. Thus, if the cell has a set of two genes and thus products is in principle quite easy lives because, despite the fact that it is present in the toxin, antitoxin does not allow it to prove.

Then there is an interesting situation. The fact that the toxin and antitoxin have different half-lives, or different decay rates that one and the same. And it turns out that the long-lived toxin - is a stable protein and antitoxin - very short-lived, he always breaks. Accordingly, to the cell, and there is not dead, it needs to constantly be a source of new-toxin molecules. This occurs at the working level, or expression of genes when there toxin gene and antitoxin, usually they are very DNA adjacent to each other. Both genes work, which means that they are transcribed RNA is formed with RNA made proteins. And then there are all these toxins, antitoxins.

Generally speaking, the cell, these genes are not needed. These genes - a typical case of selfish genes. Do not they need a cell, and the cell they need in order to exist. Cage - this is the environment in which they live. Selfish DNA in its purest form. But this time the cell DNA is not necessary, of course, the cell would have tried it, generally speaking, to lose, because the support of these genes and their products takes some energy cell resources and, consequently, affect its suitability.

Let's see what happens with the cell, which decided this complex of two genes encoding the toxin and antitoxin, to lose. This can occur once spontaneously: the gene is not needed - that he was lost. With the loss of this gene complex appears The following situation: the toxin as a long-lived, there will be a certain amount of time, the antitoxin rapidly disintegrate, and a new synthesis or production of new antitoxin is not because the relevant gene is simply lost.

As a result, the cell pay the most terrible payment for what she tried to increase its efficiency, namely dies.

That is why it is called modules addictiveness because, once received a set of genes, it is impossible to get rid of him. That is, it can be done only by means of his own death. Surprisingly, it turns out that in prokaryotes the world, in the world of non-nuclear cells, bacteria, the amount of toxin-toxin systems very much, because, apparently, the strategy for the selfish DNA was just a very winning. And there are plenty of the most interesting systems of this kind. The most famous from the mechanical point of view (the principle that different lifetime for the toxin and antitoxin is maintained) - a system of restriction and modification.

We are interesting because of all molecular cloning has arisen due to the fact that we, the scientists, biotechnologists, actually began to use the toxin from the system. The toxin acts as an enzyme called restriction enzymes or restriction endonuclease. She can recognize a specific DNA region and make it a double-stranded break, which, generally speaking, means that the cell then dies. But antitoxin is another enzyme called methyltransferase, or methylase he finds exactly the same DNA sequence and methylates this sequence, ie contributes to the equivalent of a small modification. As a result of this modification restriction enzyme loses the ability to recognize this place.

Thus, if the site is not modified, not methylated, the restriction enzyme see through it, and this is equivalent to death. If the site is modified antitoxin, then everything is fine, it is possible to exist. Naturally, the restriction enzyme is a long-lived, so that, God forbid, that cell which has decided to get rid of this remarkable system, did not survive. Given that the majority of restriction enzymes recognize very specific DNA sequencing, molecular biologists began to use it since the late 1970s to clone, to generate recombinant molecules, and neither interferon nor insulin, nor all these things that are very popular now and save life of the masses of people, there would be if it had not been opened these systems.

The situation, of course, in the cells and their parasites (in this case the parasites are selfish genes and toxin complexes antitoxin, addictiveness or modules) is never unequivocal, is never pure parasitism - there is always some kind of symbiosis. It turns out that in addition to the fact that the toxin-toxin systems support themselves, they really are, of course, are interested in maintaining the health and life of the cell in which they live. Because ultimately, if the cell dies, and they will die. And, it turns out, they are useful for cells at various levels. The same restriction and modification system actually makes a cell, for example, from viruses. Because if in a cage, God forbid, will be injected into the DNA of the virus, which is going to the cell lysis, to produce new viruses, the majority of DNA cases of this virus will not be modified, therefore, the restriction enzyme, located in the cell learns sequences that it should found in the DNA of the virus, and see through them. The cell will be saved, because it is protected by its own DNA methylation, and foreign DNA - no. Perfectly.

In addition, the "toxin - antitoxin" systems allow the cells to fight with antibiotics. From the perspective of cells is good. It is not very good from the point of view of us. How does this happen? The fact that, despite the fact that during the evolution of systems level work toxin and antitoxin genes somehow collimated, so that on the whole was good, there is always some low percentage tenths of a percent of the cells in which all of a sudden for some reason the toxin was too much. It would seem that everything is fine, but that's purely a stochastic effect. And some of the cells in the population, even in an environment where the nutrient medium does not limit and has all the conditions for rapid growth, not growing. They for some time stopped simply because the accident occurred is too great accumulation of toxin accumulation which antitoxin here and now could not compensate. Is this good or bad? It turns out that it's good, because it is those cells that are not growing, are not subject to the action of antibiotics. Almost all antibiotics act on actively growing cells.

If there were no systems "toxin - antitoxin", then all the bacterial cells are completely stupid and boring robots are programmed to act strictly in relation to environmental conditions.

And if the food is, they are growing rapidly; if there is no food, they just stop. The presence of toxin-toxin systems leads to a conditional intracellular opposition who do not grow, although it would seem, can grow. It is these cells which in the case of antibiotics, for example, just survive. Because those who quickly grew, died, and those who are currently why stopped because they had too much of the toxin at this point, will survive - not because they are genetically different in a way, but because that purely stochastically they had a lot of growth disfavors molecule.

In Russian now also such a word appeared. In fact it is in the economy is called hedging - hedging risks. It is a strategy that allows you to prepare and be ready for the risks that may be, will be, or may be, will not. At the population level it means that not all cells behave efficiently, but in the case of changes in the conditions it can survive the entire community. At the patient level, unfortunately, this results in that, despite the use of antibiotics, there are antibiotic-resistant infections, which are not connected even with genetic stability, and simply with such resistance.

And, perhaps, even now it is not surprising, but the development of bioinformatics, in particular, showed that almost all the really serious pathogenic bacteria simply crammed systems "toxin - antitoxin", because they are always ready. Awareness of the importance of systems "toxin - antitoxin", this cell in the emergence of addiction, or perhaps better to say in the fundamental impossibility to cure certain bacterial infections resulting in a completely strange paradigm shift - I'm talking about the future, rather than what we have now. But in principle, it turns out that maybe the right strategy for complete curing certain diseases is not an attempt to suppress cell growth, but on the contrary, it is necessary to stimulate cell growth. That is, one can imagine that trying to selectively disable certain toxin-toxin systems, reducing the share of those cells, which somehow is not growing, hedging future risks and stimulating them to grow, you can thus exhibit the effect of all those wonderful antibiotics that medicine has gained in recent years, and here they are already yours, anywhere they go away from you. But this kind in the future.

Work of Genes - Interaction of Macromolecules

Microbiologist says about complementarity principle, the shape of biological molecules and protein stability. Which molecules called macromolecules? On what is the principle of complementarity? What role does the shape of biological molecules?

We are composed of special molecules called macromolecules because they are very large (for example, proteins or nucleic acids). The interaction of these molecules with each other to a large extent determines our behavior and the behavior of our cells. If we really want to get to the bottom of things, we have to go to that level of interacting molecules and understand what is happening there. It is such, on the one hand, almost a school or university level, but actually understanding how interactions occur, which are responsible for everything we do in modern biology by and large do not.

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Understanding the biological molecules have some form and that form is essential for their function, it is fairly recent. It arose as a result of the development of crystallography, when scientists learned how to get the structure of molecules in three dimensions. For example, a protein - a chain of amino acids. Let's say you have a chain consisting of links, even different, and if you just toss this chain into the air and it falls to the ground, then every time you do it, you will obtain different configurations. Those forms that chain will be different. With biological molecules is not the case, and all or nearly all of the protein molecules curl up in a certain way, the chain becomes a three-dimensional shape, and these shapes are all very similar to each other. What happens at the end, it has a certain surface, which has a special outline. Proteins themselves consist of amino acids that may have positive or negative charges and one or the other to interact efficiently or, conversely, not interact with water. This is called the hydrophilic and hydrophobic surface regions. It turns out almost always in the cage there is another molecule that has a complementary pattern of positive / negative charge and hydrophilic / hydrophobic bonds, and these two molecules may be contacted with each other, just like the yin and yang. Moreover, the more complex the shape, the more the interactions performed on the surface that connects two molecules, the stronger will be the final complex.

All biological important molecules are metastable, they have a shape which at a certain exposure may vary. For example, when we have a fever, many of our proteins simply change their three-dimensional shape, which is why we have a mass of any problems. This occurs because the temperature has risen three degrees. Why is this happening? Because the folded protein molecule maintains a certain structure due to intramolecular interactions, positive and negative charges, which attract.

Work of Genes - Genetic noise

Microbiologist says about epigenetics, the mechanism of cell division and fluorescent proteins. What is an epigenetic phenomenon? How does genetic noise? As the noise impact on the further life of a cell? And what is the use in medicine find these studies?

Genetic noise phenomenon occurs, and there is a necessity, for the following reason: when we consider the process of cell division, we always think that after the cell divided, having two identical copies. Indeed, at least in the case of genetic information of DNA have special mechanisms that provide very precise uniform distribution of the total set of genes as a single "daughter" and the other parent cells at division. Thus, if there was any additional mutations during replication of DNA, each of the daughter cells is a clone that is completely identical to the parent cell in terms of genetic information. But in the daughter cell gets not only the DNA - there is also within the cytoplasm of the parent cell.

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Cytoplasm - that's what makes a cage. If the cell - is a pouch with enzymes, i.e. the membrane and within the cytoplasm and the DNA floating in the cytoplasm. It turns out that if you can convey absolutely identical copies of the DNA of each of the daughter cells is exactly the same amount of cytoplasm in the transfer can not be daughter cells: there will always be a small error.

It has medical significance because case role is very important, particularly in antibiotic therapy, because exactly the same as in the situation with a virus and a bacterium, the use of antibiotics will always be situations in which the antibiotic is simply not act on certain cells . Not because they are genetically modified, but now everything is very worried about the emergence of resistant forms of bacteria. Here we are talking about the Darwinian version: bacteria that have altered their genetic structure so that the antibiotic does not work for them at all.

It has medical significance because case role is very important, particularly in antibiotic therapy, because exactly the same as in the situation with a virus and a bacterium, the use of antibiotics will always be situations in which the antibiotic is simply not act on certain cells . Not because they are genetically modified, but now everything is very worried about the emergence of resistant forms of bacteria. Here we are talking about the Darwinian version: bacteria that have altered their genetic structure so that the antibiotic does not work for them at all.

Work of Genes - Protein Folding

Microbiologist says about structural biology, protein structure prediction methods and crowdsourcing in science. What is studying structural biology? What role is played by proteins in the human body? As the cell controls the structure of proteins?

by itself is not sufficient protein sequence to determine its function. In order for the protein to work, it should fold - in three-dimensional space to find some special shape or structure, which will ensure its biological function. Squirrels know how to do it, because the protein with a particular sequence in certain biologically relevant conditions always will be curtailed as it is necessary. They know how to curl, and we - no. And that, oddly enough, seems to be one of the main problems of modern biology. Biology The problem is not to beat cancer, not stem cells, and certainly not immortal. The fundamental problem, which is studying biology, which really should be allowed - it's like proteins are able to interpret their sequence of letters to fold into a specific three-dimensional structure, which provides the function. We do not know how they do it, so are forced to engage in structural biology. There invested a lot of money, we need very sophisticated equipment, synchrotrons are necessary in order to resolve the structure of proteins, to see what form takes molecule.

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About the most important proteins say they are conservative. This means that they were in great- granddad or great-grandmother of all existing life. One of the groups of genes whose products are absolutely conserved, are the genes encoding the so-called chaperones - before they were called heat shock proteins. This is of special machines in the cell, all of which function to fold proteins correctly folded back. Work some of them quite remarkable way. It's a great protein with a hole inside the barrel, the number of barrels greatly increased, for example, when the temperature rises. This means that you have a heat shock occurs. And then there is this: all proteins whose structure is slightly disrupted and became not what it is necessary to go to the shop for repairs. They are all loaded into the barrel of this, go through it, it is wasted energy. For a cell is not free. Outside of the barrel goes protein that collapsed as it should.

Under the prediction of protein folding is meant that with the help of computer simulation, you want to come up with an algorithm that allows you to fold proteins correctly. Apparently, this is the rare case when a new form of scientific activities, such crowdsourcing help solve a problem that scientists themselves can not solve. The fact that in some way the human brain can very well solve the puzzles in the spirit of Tetris - put some things in such a way that the packaging of objects in three-dimensional space was most dense. Proteins fold to some extent as well. A few years ago there was a computer game, and just a year ago, there were articles in a very prestigious scientific journals, the authors of which were strange people - students, for example, an American truck drivers. Why? Because Foldit program was invented - literally "Gather it." In this program, there are scientific rules, but the goal - to roll the protein sequence is the best way.

Work of Genes - Transmission of Biological Signals

Microbiologist says about the problem of biological solutions, the interaction of hormones and receptors and gene regulation work. How are biological solutions? How can regulate of genes? How is the process of information transfer between cells?

Life in the end - it's a matter of making the right decisions. The external environment is changing, and the living organism has to adapt to it. If he adapts, taking the wrong decisions, then, most likely, a long body and his descendants will not exist, and we are about it just will not know. The question arises: how biological decisions are made? Everything that we do, but we can discuss any number of free will, in the end still comes down to the interaction of macromolecules in our brain, our muscles, our body cells.

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If we consider a cage which can respond to the presence in the medium of the hormone (which is small, typically the peptide molecule) that on its surface - a cell partitioned off from the outer world membrane - float receptors, protein molecules that are partially outside and can interact with other molecules that exist in the external environment. Moreover, for a given hormone should be at the cell receptor that can interact with hormone. This interaction is at the level of the key and the lock. The hormone interacts with a receptor because surface receptor molecule, a protein, or has a certain cavity shape, which is exactly the same external form of the hormone. And so the interaction is very dense. When such an interaction occurs, the receptor does not remain the same as it was before, it really changes its shape. He was the first of such, and become another. Energy for change, receptor conformation turned from hormone binding energy with the receptor. Any binding brings some energy into the system, and this excess energy can find its expression (or yield) that most of the receptor molecule to change their shape. Such changes lead to a receptor molecule that are new, not previously exposed areas, which in turn can communicate something else. There is a kind of information transmission chain. Each member of the chain due to molecular interactions with a partner above the cascade is able to transmit a signal and then lower just slightly changed.

If we have somewhere on the surface of cells originated signal cascade that led to the transfer of the modified macromolecular interactions between molecules, one can imagine that this signal reaches where it is necessary. And it is necessary that he came precisely to the repressor, and some additional interaction with the repressor will lead to the following: changes already repressor structure so that it will no longer complementary to the DNA molecule, where he stayed until now. So, if it goes out, the gene would be open, transcription can go with it, it will earn.

Work of Genes - Genomic medicine

Microbiologist says about the nature of genetic diseases, genome editing technology CRISPR / Cas9 and DNA repair.

Among the vast number of diseases that affect the human race, in addition to prion infection, which can be bacterial or viral in origin, there is a certain class of diseases - it is not very wide - the so-called genetic disease. And their nature is due to the fact that someone from our very unlucky and we have received from the Pope, or mother, or both an incorrect copy of the gene that encodes, for example, a protein with altered function, and changing the function leads to occurrence of various pathologies. There are many diseases of the blood of this kind. For example, sickle cell anemia, or various trisomy, cystic fibrosis is a disease.

To date, the medicine knows what changes in which genes are responsible for simple, or so-called monogenic, diseases that are actually determined by the change of only one gene. In most cases, this sentence - in the sense that little can be taken in this case: it is not a bacterium that you hit, and in this sense, neither an antibiotic, nothing else your physiological state can not change.

The approach in this case would like to apply, called genomic medicine, and purely conceptual understanding that you need a bad copy of the gene, failed, unsuccessful DNA sequence change, so that it bounced back, it has become the same as in normal people, whatever that means. And in this case, the disease to disappear simply because the reasons for it is no more. Ideally, it is good to do another stage of conception, because it was then the egg, we are present in the form of a single cell. Just after is the development of each of us is already made up of trillions of cells, to cure this kind of genetic typo in each of the numerous cells in our body would be technically very difficult.

And recently appeared approaches that can deal with this kind of genomic disease. This approach called genome editing, it is associated with the development of CRISPR / Cas technology that has come to us, as well as many other things, from the world of bacteria - bacteria are struggling with viruses, they also have their own misfortune. And the way in which the bacteria have come up as a result of evolution, due to the fact that they were able to find out the genetic material of the virus due to complementary interactions.

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In general, the whole life is built on the complementary interaction. Anyone who loves philosophy may immediately think about the yin and yang. There are two DNA strands which fit together as yin and yang, and each of the DNA strands, on one hand, carries the genetic information in the form of nucleotide sequences and on the other hand, if we divide these two circuits, it is possible for one chain, both in the matrix, build missing. Thus, we have become one molecule of the two molecules, and then four, and so on.

CRISPR / Cas technology is based on how the bacteria are using this as follows: they use a short nucleic acid molecule - no DNA, and RNA - in order to recognize the DNA portion of the virus, and they are recognized by the complementary rule. And after such learning takes place - and there is recognition of just DNA virus, nothing else, because it is very accurate recognition - then with the help of special proteins, viral DNA is degraded, and the cell is saved: the virus is destroyed.

And it turned out that exactly the same thing works in the cells of higher organisms, such as man, namely, if we take a bacterial protein called Cas and enter it into a mammalian cell, and if the same mammalian cell enter some other way - have the appropriate technology - very short nucleic acid ribonucleotide RNA sequence which exactly corresponds to a modified copy of a human gene, a very small area, there will be complementary recognition, and then the copy of the gene, which corresponds to the RNA is not destroyed, and it will simply be made of double-stranded gap, DNA will break into two parts - one was a long DNA molecule, and now it entered the gap.

An advantage of this system is that it is exceedingly high precision, at least for the bacteria, it is very accurate.

Only in full compliance guide RNA and DNA molecules matrix interactions is that lead to cleavage of the DNA chain.

Why is it good to split the DNA? Since each of us has two sets of genes - one from her father, one from the mother - just imagine the situation that the father's gene (Mom's nothing wrong can not give us, even in the case of hemophilia is not the case) is not defined, it has a mutation that leads to some severe physiological state, and my mother's perfectly normal. So, if we can split the father's wrong up at the place where there was a mutation, the cell is already itself - cells evolution accustomed to the fact that the breaks in DNA occur - heals the gap in the remaining healthy copies, and if Dad's a bad copy of splintered, then the mother's possible to restore everything.

This is based genomic medicine, because if you can make precision seen through to the place of the gene, which leads to some undesirable consequences, then later as a result of the procedure, called the repair you just heal her editing. And it works very well, that is the most surprising, that the system of the bacteria, whereby the bacteria fight off viruses, works in cells of higher organisms, when bacterial proteins - proteins are not ours - perform this kind of function in our cells.

This technology is fired in the sense that the CRISPR / Cas-systems have been used to modify the cells of higher organisms, it was in 2013 year. And in 2015 it was reported that at last - of course, it was just a matter of time - attempted to align, edit, slightly fix human embryos. Eventually everything was done for the sake of it, this is the holy grail of genomic medicine.

I undertook a fertilized human egg, and that egg was damaged gene, two copies of the gene, leading to a blood disease called beta thalassemia: the following experiment was conducted. The result of this disease is anemia, insufficient transfer of oxygen in red blood cells, about hundreds of millions of people suffer from this disease, and tens of thousands of people a year die. It would be nice it all to heal. No sooner said than done. And experience seems to be very simple. As suggested by the CRISPR / Cas-technology, the fertilized egg has been introduced Cas protein and the RNA guide who had to bite the wrong copy of the gene, so that later it healed. And then after such a procedure, treatment of embryos allowed to grow, because it was a fertilized egg. Thank God allowed them to grow long, just to a small quantity of lumps of cells. And then look what has become of these embryos to the level of the genome, whether they are cured or not? And the result was such that some cured in 5-10% of the original variation, which would be responsible for the disease, if it were a real person, really proved to cure - this is good news. The percentage is low, but, obviously, the technology can be modified, and increase the percentage.

The bad news was that almost all cells present is still a large amount of change, that is, mutations that were not in those places, which would like to draw your attention to the researchers. In scientific terms this is called non-specific activity, ie this CRISPR / Cas-system has contributed to bite, and then changes not only in the place where he wanted, but also in other places of the genome. Unfortunately, this is a big problem that appears, you can not fight in any way reasonable method, and this is due simply to the nature of macromolecular interactions.

Consider the situation where the DNA region of 20 nucleotides in length (20 characters) specifically interacts with the RNA-guided, and that the correct interaction - it is strong: good agreement determines the strong interaction and ultimately saw through the introduction and everything else. But in a cage - it can be shown purely statistically - there is 3 multiplied by 20 (three - because all have four letters of DNA), ie 60 options that the correct sequence differing by only one letter.

Thus, there is 60 sequences which are very similar to what you want to target, but slightly different.

Each of them reacts slightly worse than ideal - for example, 10 times, but a lot of them. In addition, the cell 60 will already be multiplied by 60, that is 3600 sequence variants that differ from what you want to treat only two letters and so on. And here comes the problem: despite the fact that the interaction with the correct target is the strong, the actual number of wrong – a little bit or slightly more wrong - the sequences are so great that in most cases this complex editorial CRISPR / Cas will be, not where necessary. Although each of these interactions is not very correct targets will be very short and fragile, in the amount of it will be sufficient to ensure that at this the wrong place was introduced the DNA break, and then went to some kind of procedure is the repair, which in itself makes a mutation into the genome.

How to deal with it - is unclear. People try to use some bioinformatics protocols to look for just such a position, which is really unique in the genome. But the only problem is that the Lord is God, or someone else, the one who makes the mutations that cause genetic diseases, is not guided by considerations of this kind, and so there are lots of sites that we would like to heal, but, unfortunately, to get close to it is with this technology is very difficult.

Another example, in front of which this technology is exactly impotent, are the so-called diseases caused by repeats. There are some very simple sections of DNA - for example, DNA consists of four letters, but there are sections of DNA, which is repeated many times the same letter - GGGG G. It turns out that during replication, when the reproduction, copying of this kind of DNA occur spontaneously error: one extra letter G insert or lack of one letter. And diseases associated with such a mechanism, a lot - of simple repetitions of disease. And it is clear that the CRISPR / Cas-technology can not deal with such diseases, because the site is very easy to degenerate sequence can not be found, you can find a variety of ways, complementary interaction with the site possible in different registers. And you completely lose the ability to control the editing process, and consequently, the possibility of cure disease.

Work of Genes - Gene therapy

Microbiologist says about the causes of diseases, methods of treatment and control of bacterial viruses.What tasks has set a gene therapy? As there are genetic diseases? How bacteria fight against viruses? And discoveries in this field have influenced the development of gene therapy?

Genome of any person consists of 3 billion nucleotides of DNA, which can be represented in the form of letters. This is the genetic information which leads to a person. But sometimes there are errors. Over the past 10 years, scientists have tried to find a way to get to your destination in the DNA and change the typo. At the beginning of 2013 to make a breakthrough. It turned out that the bacteria have a system of immunity, with which they are struggling with viruses.

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This system works in such a way that most of the bacteria as a result of interaction with their viruses accumulates traces of interaction of molecular tags viruses. This is because a small piece of the viral DNA enters the DNA of a bacterium. In bacteria, there is a special "machine", which then, knowing that there is this small portion, the remainder of the virus, which used this cell is already infected, using this piece together with special proteins, in order to find the virus, find and kill him . This system is very specific, because the bacterial cell is also necessary to solve an important problem - only to kill viruses, but not themselves.

This system is known as CRISPR. It was not known until 2007. It turned out that these peculiar, interesting, but not related to this genetic engineering and gene therapy studies of bacteria, apparently, and will be the breakthrough that will allow doctors to begin to correct typographical errors in human genes.