FAQ: The cellular basis of behavior

5 facts about neurons studies dealing with isolated brain and model organisms.

Our life works is quite simple. Not so long ago it became clear that we have only about 20,000 genes. We know almost all the basic physiological processes occurring in our cells, and is unlikely to discover something completely new in the field. And we're pretty good idea of the principles of the majority of organs, tissues.

• 1.Study of nerve cells in the simplest model organisms

The brain is a particular challenge for the researcher, because there are too many cells - about one hundred billion. One approach to elucidation of the mechanisms of the brain was used in the model organisms that have fewer nerve cells. Such organisms are well known. These include, for example, a fly-Drosophila and the nematode C. elegans. In this nematode around the body about a thousand cells, including several hundred neurons. But, unfortunately, in these animals the nerve cells are very small, and they do not allow the use of classical physiological methods.

A nerve cell electrical works, and about its basic properties we know for a long time. Work nerve cell it based on the fact that it contains ion channels that can be opened either by changing the membrane potential on it or by the action of chemicals that come from other cells. These processes are well studied primarily due to the fact that the nerve cell can be inserted microelectrode. With this electrode, you can see how a cell can change its own activity. If you enter the two electrodes in the cells at the same time, you can see how one cell affects the other. And if the body such as, for example, a worm C. elegans, have only a few hundred cells, then in principle it is possible to view all communications between cells to examine how their work determines behavior. Unfortunately, the most favorite model organisms in biology, such as flies and nematodes, the nerve cells are small, and these nerve cells is extremely difficult to study using the most common method among physiologists.

• 2.Identification of neurons using a microelectrode

Microelectrodes, which can be inserted in one single cell and measure its work and make it work, or shut down, have been developed for a long time, if necessary. It was found that there are the organisms whose cells are very large, which facilitates the use of this method. In addition, it was found out that some animal single cells can learn from the experience in the experience. As a result, the idea of identifiable neurons: possible to designate some number of specific neurons in the cochlea of one and then the other snail found in the brain of the same neuron. Thus, you can examine the nervous system at the cellular level, at the same identifiable neurons.

One of the most famous examples of such experiments is reflected in the work of Eric Kandel on shellfish Aplysia. Our laboratory has used other shellfish that lives in the White Sea, which is called "sea angel» (Clione limacina). It was very convenient model to the cellular level, studying the individual nerve cells to explain his behavior. We have studied on the isolated brain, he waves his wings as hunts as oriented in space. If you are using an isolated brain, you can easily learn it the work of individual neurons and explore the links between them.

• 3.The behavior in the isolated brain

When dealing with an isolated brain the question arises: how to find out what would be the brain do if he was connected with the body? How to ask him information about the environment? It turned out that this is possible. To begin, you determine which nerve cells manage what authorities and take part in any actual behaviors. For this we have to do the preparation, which keeps the nervous system due to certain muscles or organs. By stimulating microelectrode through individual identified neurons, we can show that one or the other cell when it causes irritation of the flap movement in one direction or another, or turn tail. Now, working with isolated brain, we may decide that the body would be doing if he were active certain neurons.

As a result, it was found that almost any form of behavior that shellfish can be studied on the isolated brain and described at the cellular level. For example, we now know that there Clione preferred orientation in the water column. It usually swims up head. And if it stops swimming, it can regain this position, using its tail as a rudder. But when it is very hot, then it flips and swims in the depth, where colder. In isolated brain can keep in touch with the balance organ, containing only a dozen of sensitive cells. You can annoy one single cell of the organ of equilibrium and cause the "illusion" of an isolated brain, that he turned. Those cells can be studied, who perceive these signals and pass them on those cells which turn tail. The drug may be heated, irritating statocysts cells, and it will have the illusion that he turns in warm or cold water can irritate the cells, which in normal life would have turned tail and so on. That is, even the most difficult thing that can monkfish - hunt or orientation in space - can be explored with any desired degree of accuracy at the level of the properties and relationships of individual cells.

• 4.Isolation of cells

An important achievement that has helped us in this study was that we learned directly isolate those same cells that take some part in the behavior. We can see the work not only of the entire nervous system, and each individual neuron. But, unfortunately, we can not use these methods to more complex organisms such as bees, because the number of cells in these organisms in the hundreds of thousands, and no microelectrodes make it impossible.

• 5.Prospects for the study of nerve cells in the brain

Recently, there was a major revolution in the way that will allow us to understand the vertebrate brain and even in our brain. There are some bacteria and algae, which they see the light. And they have proteins that do the channel opening under the action of light. As a result, the cell changes its activity: excited or inhibited, depending on whether this protein. If a protein is inserted into the nerve cells of the brain, such as a mouse, then you are illuminating the brain run wild mouse, can affect these nerve cells. Nerve cells have a lot, but they are divided into a certain number of types. These cell types are characterized in that they are expressed (synthesized) certain proteins unique to these cells. Before the genes of these proteins have promoters - this is the place, which triggers the synthesis of RNA. If you build it under a light-sensitive channel gene promoter, this type of cells you can turn on or off light. On the other hand, these proteins were made which light depending on calcium concentration. You can also include its synthesis in a particular cell type.

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There is a possibility to work selectively view various types of brain cells by the way in which enters and exits calcium. Scientists themselves may turn on or off these cells, or slow down their run. Now study the cellular basis of behavior that began with the tedious experiments on single cells shellfish, can be carried out on vertebrates.

The mechanisms of forgetting

Psychologist tells about an active forgetting, disorders of training and specialization of neurons.Can you give a definition of forgetting? What is an active forgetting and how to explore? whether the process of forgetting is necessary for our body?

The first who began to study experimentally forgetting was Hermann Ebbinghaus, who bought the book on Fechner's psychophysics in Paris and became interested in the problem of an experimental study of the psychological functions. And he built the first table to reproduce the material data, and since then the problems started. Because, as it became clear quite often that people forget, he recalled later. Or it turns out that he had forgotten, but it somehow still affects his behavior - this seems to be forgotten information. Thus, it appears that strictly define what forgetting, quite difficult.

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On the one hand, there is the so-called strong determination - forgetting a total loss and the disappearance of some information, that is, in fact, return to the past. When the body is in a sense it returns to step back, and the information is lost forever. The problem with this definition such that it can not be verified, it is impossible to end to make sure that all options used checking whether information has disappeared. There is always some possibility of another option. Another story with a weak definition. Poor definition states that forgetting - it is impossible to remove at the moment from memory something that previously been removed. There is enough of that, let's say, I do not remember at some point - so, I forgot. It is much closer to us the definition. The problem with it is, so that, in fact, nothing can not be forgotten, it is impossible to prove that any forgotten that through.

The most interesting is the study of active forgetting. They mean that our body forgets not just happen, but does it on purpose, and it is a normal, adaptive, necessary process. And here are three interesting lines of research carried out on the molluscs, insects and mammals, that show similar things. In the shellfish on the pond ordinary, an experiment was conducted in which the body is destroyed certain neuron in the brain of the pond. Shellfish such a feature, they have quite a large nerve cells, many of them have been identified and described, and we know that without them, the pond snail can not do. Among other things, it is one of the nerve cells, without which truncatula can not learn a new skill. We also learned that after learning a new skill, when the cell is preserved, if destroy it, it will not just be able to study further, but he also will not be able to forget and what learned before. In other words, forgetting that occurs normally in the presence of this cell, this cell is required, there is no forgetting and without it.

5 books about the brain and consciousness

What to read about the brain mechanisms

What to read about the structure, functioning of the brain and its capabilities? Can you trust the brain? How to interact with the mind and the brain, and how his work can be seen in the context of neuroscience? Important work in this area in the selection of recommended books.

• 1.K. Frith brain and soul. How nervous activity shapes our inner world.

This is one of the rare books in Russian, which is professional and affordable tells the story of how the mental world is arranged. The world of our sensations, feelings and perceptions. The author, a famous English neurobiologist and neuropsychologist, examining the details of the anatomical unit of the human brain, tells the story of how originate, develop and live like mental images and ideas about the real physical world. In his narration the author uses the information obtained in the most recent publications on how to change the activity of a variety of surface and deep structures of the brain at a particular behavioral action. Enclosures and landscapes of the inner worlds of man, it turns out, does not necessarily have to be copies of external reality. On the contrary, it is the full owner of the fruits of creativity of the brain - work, not divorced from reality, but only to fill the gaps in her knowledge. Our inner world, according to the author of the book, if not richer almost than the outside world, as it complements the options of possible implementations and spiritual quest.

• 2.Ramachandran VS Birth mind. Mysteries of our consciousness.

Only two or three line assigns the author describing itself of any illness or injury of a patient, and then sent to the reader with the author in a leisurely study of brain devices and sources of intelligence. Here in one patient with a missing right limb as soon as the doctor touched his cheek on the left, immediately he itched thumb, which is not. No sooner had the doctor to touch her cheek just below the former place as want to have to scratch the index finger of the same hand missing. Ramachandran, as if wondering himself, investigating the causes of this phenomenon, and the reader is suddenly notices that he now knows not only about the phenomenon, not only about its causes, but also about the very marrow device, and more about how this whole "mechanics " working.

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How we perceive the world around us and where in the process the error occur? Are there any universal criteria of artistic taste, or it depends on cultural differences and national peculiarities of the people? Why do some people with the sound of a specific tone feel a certain color? As may appear colored and numbers printed on paper by the same ink? Why such confusion modalities of sensations, synaesthesia, preserved in human evolution? What is the favorite author of the mirror neurons that are activated in the brain not only for some of their own actions, but also with a similar action of another person? Finally, and most have a philosophical question: whether a person's will by his example, flex your finger when deliberately wants to do it. It turns out that for a second before the moment when a person decides to bend the finger, the brain is all calculated and independently decided to bend the finger. So we secretly commands our brain, not his own mind! So quietly Vilayanur S. Ramachandran tells us not only about the structure and functioning of the brain, about the mysteries of the mind, but also leads to the conclusion that his favorite subject, neurology - a storehouse of philosophy.

• 3.Spitzer M. The whole truth about the brain. Popular neurology.

Demanding reader, having read a dozen pages can call this book is not very interesting. However, here you have to be a certain patience. Indeed, the book does not have the density of information flow, that aura of mystery in the descriptions of the brain and its activity, not even sophisticated theories that usually riveting attention to the scientific and popular works. But there is a leisurely account of all sorts of different stories about cases of medical practice, which has seen in my lifetime psychiatrist and neurologist, Dr. Manfred Spitzer wonderful. In the book, the author pays relatively little attention to proper medical aspects of a case, but fully discloses its deeper meaning and significance to the design of the brain point of view, the content of the mental processes and errors domestic interpretations of brain activity. It can be said that the book, Manfred - a collection of all sorts of stories that in some way shed light on the mechanisms of the brain and mind. This is a direct observation of the author, or the fruits of the random thoughts, conversations with friends. "The whole truth about the brain" - it is a very balanced, well thought out from all sides of the story about the different aspects of the human brain, which, on the one hand, it would seem, is absolutely clear from the school, on the other hand, if you think, are quite cryptic, reveals the secret life of the brain. Somewhere after reading the first third of the book it becomes clear that the unhurried pace of the presentation by the author of his story correspond to the speed of the natural perception of the subject and the only acceptable to the thoughtful reader. It becomes obvious that babies begin to adapt to the external environment, while still in the womb; chocolate, of course, has a positive effect on brain activity, a healthy sex itself controls the level of sex hormone testosterone, and not vice versa. By the end of the book the reader is surprised to find that he won not just a mass of new knowledge about the brain, but learn how to assess and treat any new information or their own observations about how the human brain works in the context of their own experiences, and when viewed from the side.

• 4.Doydzh N. Brain Plasticity. Stunning facts about how thoughts can change the structure and function of our brain.

Author of the book - an unusual person. Not only is he a doctor of medicine, a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst and professor at Columbia University in New York and the Faculty of Psychiatry of the University of Toronto - he is also a talented essayist, poet, and a great popularizer of science about the brain. His book, "Brain Plasticity" - a rare example of a combination of scientific rigor of presentation the most improbable hypotheses, medical rigor descriptions of clinical cases and dramaturgic verified feed. And all this for the sake of promotion of a brilliant idea that the brain is capable of changing its own structure and function due to the thoughts and actions of man. Norman believes Doydzh revolution understanding of the brain as the substrate of our behavior and intelligence, constantly modified according to the cognitive needs of the organism. "This revolution, in connection with the brain neuroplasticity - wrote Norman Doydzh - can not influence on our understanding of how love, sex, grief, relationships with people, education, addiction, culture, technology and psychotherapy alter our brain" . Indeed, a new understanding of the brain, the structure and the content of which is constantly being rebuilt in favor of the current needs of intelligence, can not fail to affect not only the biological and medical research, but also the human, social and natural sciences, which in one way or another deal with human nature . Bright, accessible, always intrigue Norman Doydzh says as outstanding scientists, proving the brain plasticity, and for patients whose lives have changed much for the better due to the fact that they suffered from injuries he perfected the brain so that its healthy parts started to work perfectly a new way to compensate for brain mechanisms defective. Book Norman Doydzha has undoubted charge of optimism, it gives you the belief that the mind and will of the people can not only improve the brain of a healthy person, but also to make him win any disease.

• 5.Aamodt, S., Wong S. Secrets of the brain, or Why smart people do stupid things.

Sandra Aamodt and Sam Wang is well known for his work in the study of the human brain mechanisms in health and disease. Perhaps therefore a popular science book about how the brain works, contains a minimum of excursions into the textbooks of anatomy and physiology, but is full of fascinating information and facts from the life of the brain that explain our behavior, our abilities and causes some brain diseases. The book - a kind of invitation to explore your own mind. It's called the original version of "Welcome to your brain." In fact, the reader will not be deceived. In six major sections, he discovers feelings and how they are deceptive, why do not all become geeks and whether there is a chance to remain in full mind to old age can you trust your brain as are formed, why do we need emotions and whether they are relevant to the state of happiness, what is more important, and more important: heredity or upbringing - and finally, as far as we are rational, reasonable, and how our consciousness is subject to the action of pharmacological and psychological effects? All this and much more Sandra Aamodt and Sam Wang told in an accessible and entertaining form, and most importantly, with the knowledge and enthusiasm of professionals guides, leading her first tour group. Book Sandra Aamodt and Sam Wang is useful by the fact that justifies the folly of even the most intelligent people that this is due to the appropriate structure and content of their brain.

FAQ: Synchrovitals (living cell)

7 facts about the structure of important biological system on the planet

A cell is an elementary living system that is capable of existing separately, independently of the other cells. This is most clearly manifested property in unicellular organisms. Any other smaller biological system, any set of molecules exist on its own can not. Therefore, the cell - the most important biological system. That's cells create life on our planet.

• 1.To understand how the cell - which means, in fact, to understand what life is, how it is arranged, how it works. And as we, the people, too, formed by cells, it is to understand what the person on the biological level.
  Cell biology is an old science. She appeared immediately after the invention of the microscope more than three centuries ago, when there was not genetics or biochemistry, and chemistry, in general, has not happened. And all these three centuries dead cells mainly studied. To look at the cage, it had to first fix, ie, stop all intracellular processes. And a dead cell, where all the stops, but all the ingredients are in place, and studied. And a dead cell representation was made up, how it is arranged. Of course, we tried to keep the cell in a state as close to a living ... but still, it was a dead cell. the picture was made on the basis of these observations, which, in general, is correct, but static. It is this understanding of the cell and included in school textbooks and university courses.
• 2.In a static picture, we can tell what's inside the house, but there are people we can not say, because people come, go, go about their business, etc. Same thing with the cell. It is actually alive, and learn to understand how the cell is built, how it functions, and most importantly - how it is formed, it was not possible on the basis of such data on the static dead cells.
  How to study a living cell? See it through a microscope? In this case we see a cell that is divided, and wherein the moving any organelles. And you want to understand the unit cells at the molecular level. Not just some morphological picture, I want to understand how it is arranged molecular she molecular functions, and only such a representation is already fully describe to us how to construct the cell.
• 3.To find out what is in a cell was needed methodological breakthrough. We had to learn to see the molecules within the living cell. This was a prerequisite for the opening of the so-called fluorescent proteins. These are small proteins that were first isolated from one, which has no "economic value" of jellyfish with a beautiful name Aequorea victoria. These proteins have one feature: if shine light of a certain wavelength on it, it starts to glow, to fluoresce. So, we can see where this protein, the molecule. Next we take a gene of the protein of interest to us, to join him fluorescent protein gene and introduced into a cell. The cell starts to produce a protein which consists of two parts: the part that corresponds to the protein under study, and that's this little part of the fluorescence, which will show us where the protein is. As a result, we can see the protein, because it shines itself. We can see it in the living cell! But then there is a desire to know not only where it is, but also how these molecules behave inside a living cell.
• 4.Currently, there are several methods that allow you to assess the mobility of proteins within living cells inside its substructures. For example, within the cell nucleus. The first such work was done in 2000, in the lab of Tom Misteli of the National Institutes of Health in the United States. This is one of the best laboratories in the field of cell molecular biology. It's over, in 2000, the laboratory was not yet so well known. And they set the following experiment in the laboratory. Imagine that there is a cell in which there is some protein. Since the protein is distributed throughout the cell, we will see that the whole cell is lit ... but we do not understand, the protein moves or not. However, any fluorescent molecules have a remarkable property: if they shine a very, very strong, they cease to glow, burn. So fade any color. And Tom Misteli laboratory was made very simple thing: the cell is selected small local area and shine on her much-much. In this region fades fluorescent protein. Accordingly - in the cell protein is either moving or not. It is necessary to clarify this fundamental issue. If it is not moving, the protein is washed out of this zone will not go away, and the rest of the fluorescent protein portion of the cell will not come into this zone. And we'll see a faded area constantly over time. If the protein moves, then faded protein goes, fluorescent protein in this area will come - and this zone will begin to fluoresce once.
• 5.And what a surprise it was when it was found that a protein in the zone, where it has faded, there comes and goes from there, that is moving, and moving with a crazy speed. Proteins in the cell are not permanently in place, they are constantly moving. As usual, the first one especially and did not pay attention to the results of this experiment, then no one believed them, then became interested and said, "Maybe something in this is," and then: "Brilliant."
• 6.This discovery really makes a review of all that we think and how we think about the device cells. This is not a stable cell arranged like a machine, it everything in place, everything works, performs its functions, everything is logical and correct. And here it turns a strange chaos. Molecules are constantly moving. They are where they seemingly should stay where they are supposed to work. They work and go out of this place, where they were supposed to be ... and begin to move throughout the cell. And the movement is completely random.
• Nowadays peptides are widely spread in pharmacology: Bonomarlot, Honluten, Pinealon.Currently they are looking, but so far no one has found some ways to targeting molecules in any particular point of the core. Squirrels run, and this molecular chaos, however, there is an extremely complex structured and efficient working cell.
• 7.Probably the most interesting thing that came out of these new facts, which is not clear - this way out of this chaos of moving molecules can form ordered formation. The cell itself is arranged very difficult, this we know. And this complexity is arranged from moving at insane speeds of molecules. As the molecules from chaos arises the order of a higher level - this is probably the main issue and the main challenge for those involved in cell structure.

FAQ: Synaptic plasticity

7 facts about the ability of connections between neurons to changes

Nerve cells in the brain to form contacts with each other - the synapses. They are necessary to transmit information from one cell (presynaptic) to another (postsynaptic). This occurs by means of synaptic neurotransmitter release and closure of neurotransmitter interaction with specific receptors on the other synaptic end.

• 1.One cell forms about 2000 synaptic terminals. Imagine a situation when we need to remember some phenomenon or event. According to the currently accepted hypothesis, the memory is stored in the brain in a distributed form, that is, not in one particular cell, and in many, interconnected neural networks. Various nerve cells to each other to form synaptic contacts and simultaneous activation of a group of nerve cells, a neural network leads to the fact that we remember the event or, alternatively, store it. The memory of the event - it is the memory of the simultaneous activity of a large group of cells.
• 2.Nerve cells possess plasticity property. Plasticity - the ability for constant change. It occurs during development, when cells to grow dendrites and axons, changes morphologically and functionally. On the other hand, there synaptic plasticity, which means changing the contact between two particular cells.
• 3.Imagine a situation: some cell forms, say, 2,000 contacts with neighbors, and we need to remember something, activate the 5 of them. How is this happening? This is one of the basic questions of neurobiology at the moment.
  We can not say that the cell itself is something to recognize it activates not only the desired synapse, but also a lot of others. But the fact that the change of the synapse occurs from both the presynaptic cell, and from the postsynaptic; as well as changes occur in the extracellular matrix which connects the pre- and postsynaptic membrane.
• 4.The phenomenon of synaptic plasticity is very complex and involves almost all the molecular mechanisms that exist in the compartments of the cells, whether the postsynaptic membrane, spinule on the postsynaptic cell or axon terminals. Spines - which are small growths on the dendrites, which are predominantly in places of education synapses in the postsynaptic part of the synaptic contact, and axon terminals - thickening on the end of the axon, which is a separate compartment. And there, and there are changes associated with memory, strengthening ties between the two cells.
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• 5.Changes occur at all levels: it is changes in the amount of neuro-mediratora receptors in the post-synapse changes in their functional status and post-translational modifications. The most well-studied of them - phosphorylation. This process of rapid changes in the conformation of the receptor, wherein the enzymes, called kinases, phosphoric acid residue attached to some of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain of the receptor. This leads to very strong changes in receptor conformation and can seriously affect its performance. Moreover, phosphorylation undergoes numerous other molecular targets are in the post-synapse. There is a change of cytoskeleton, the synthesis of all additional proteins both in the cell and within the spines.
• 6.The basic mechanism, which leads to all of the above changes is the entry of calcium ions into the cell via receptors of glutamate and voltage-gated calcium channels. It leads to the activation of certain kinases subsequently phosphorylate it is already quite a large number of their substrates.
• 7.One of the major unsolved problems include hypothesis synaptic tag. It was formulated by Richard Morris, a Scottish scientist, and in the first approximation, reads as follows: if in the synaptic contact any changes occur between the two cells, it must be somehow marked. He called it a synaptic tag - synaptic tag. According to this hypothesis, when there is a change of the synapse, inside the cell somehow put "box", and thanks to him, the cell knows which synapse is altered. What is this the synaptic tag, and whether it is general - is an open question, and one of the major in neuroscience.

Neurotrophins and Gene therapy

What are the functions of neurotrophins? How do they affect the nerve cells in stressful situations? In some pathological conditions of neurotrophic factors are used as a therapeutic agent?

The nerve cells in the body are at the opposite effect of various external factors that promote the survival, development and health of nerve cells and the factors which lead to its deterioration and degeneration conditions. The latter is very often occur during various pathological conditions, such as nervous system diseases, strokes, trauma, and so forth. After these pathological conditions are often used Cerebrolisine, Neuromidine, Meldonium, Semax.

In our body, there are factors that help to stimulate the nerve cells for the active work, to fight. Such factors may include the so-called "neurotrophins" - very hard for the past 50 years, we studied a group of factors that are secreted by acting on nerve cells outside.

The effect of these factors is quite diverse. They are necessary for the formation of nerve connections in the process of development in ontogenesis, to form synaptic contacts to simulate the activity of nerve cells to the correct formation of connections with surrounding cells and much more.

Synaptic plasticity

Neuroscientist talks about the mechanism of memory, plasticity of nerve cells and phosphorylation. How does the mechanism of our memory? What is the synaptic plasticity? And if the hypothesis is correct synaptic tag?

Nerve cells in the brain to form contacts with each other - the synapses. They are necessary to transmit information from one cell (presynaptic) to another (postsynaptic). This occurs by means of synaptic neurotransmitter release and closure of neurotransmitter interaction with specific receptors on the other synaptic end. One cell forms about 2000 synaptic terminals. Imagine a situation when we need to remember some phenomenon or event. According to the currently accepted hypothesis, the memory is stored in the brain in a distributed form, that is, not in one particular cell, and in many, interconnected neural networks. Various nerve cells to each other to form synaptic contacts and simultaneous activation of a group of nerve cells, a neural network leads to the fact that we remember the event or, alternatively, store it. The memory of the event - it is the memory of the simultaneous activity of a large group of cells.

The phenomenon of synaptic plasticity is very complex and involves almost all the molecular mechanisms that exist in the compartments of the cells, whether the postsynaptic membrane, spinule on the postsynaptic cell or axon terminals. Spines - which are small growths on the dendrites, which are predominantly in places of education synapses in the postsynaptic part of the synaptic contact, and axon terminals - thickening on the end of the axon, which is a separate compartment. And there, and there are changes associated with memory, strengthening ties between the two cells.

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One of the major unsolved problems include hypothesis synaptic tag. It was formulated by Richard Morris, a Scottish scientist, and in the first approximation, reads as follows: if in the synaptic contact any changes occur between the two cells, it must be somehow marked. He called it a synaptic tag - synaptic tag. According to this hypothesis, when there is a change of the synapse, inside the cell somehow put "box", and thanks to him, the cell knows which synapse is altered. What is this the synaptic tag, and whether it is general - is an open question, and one of the major in neuroscience.

The structure of nerve cells

Neuroscientist Dr. Doping speaks about synapses, neurotransmitters, and the way information transfer in the brain.What is a nerve cell? What is the membrane potential? And how to construct synaptic contacts?

A nerve cell has a specific, quite clearly defined structure. There are several parts of the cell, the so-called compartments: it is the body of the cell, the largest, most conspicuous part. It contains the cell nucleus, in the nucleus contains DNA, ie the entire genetic information of what it was, what it is and how it work. Furthermore neurons have two types of processes: dendrites and axons. The axon of a neuron in one of the dendrites may be many. The information received through the cell dendrites and axons issues. The information in the nervous system - is, in fact, the electrical pulses.

When reaching neurotransmitter receptor on the postsynaptic membrane is opened receptors associated with ion channels. The fact that the nerve cell membrane potential generated by the difference in the concentration of several ions inside or outside the cell. When the ion channels open, ions outside can enter into the cell, which leads to changes in membrane potential, and as a result, may cause an action potential in the postsynaptic cell. In fact, this process is the transfer of information between nerve cells.

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Study of this connection is crucial for understanding how the nervous system is the activation of some cells, while other cell inhibition activity. This kind of research is needed to understand how, in principle, the brain works, why we can focus on any one thought, or how we do some one particular action, and any group of cells, which brain structures that are involved.

10 tips on how to quickly prevent the appearance of a bruise

Bruise is an extravasation on the skin. It can be formed from accidental injury, after a fight or heavy tweaking. It happens that the bruise on the body occurs at the most inopportune moment.

You can do so after the injury a bruise and does not appear. To avoid this, we must act quickly! There are several ways to prevent bruising:

• Applying ice. any frozen product can be used instead of the component. Cold actively narrows the blood vessels, which prevents the development of hematoma;
• If a bruise the size of a small, then in its place you can make a coin, it also has a healing effect;
• It occurs such that the hand is not no ice, no coins. In this case, treatment becomes a source of regular water. It is possible to dampen any matter and applying to the hematoma as a compress;
• If possible, it is necessary to make an herbal infusion, which is based on part of the mother-and-stepmother. With it, you can prevent the appearance of bruises. However, the wrap can be done only from the cold liquid;
• Plantain can be used to treat an injury at any stage of its development;
• Medications, such as "Bepanten" or heparin ointment, Vishnevsky ointment, Ointment Yuantum BK also prevent bruising;
• To expand the capillaries and stop the development of hematoma is possible by means of common salt. It needs to be folded neatly into the matter, and wrapped in a bag. Such a compress should be applied to the area of hematoma. However, this method is not suitable if the injury occurred in the eye area;
• If nearby there is a pharmacy, you can buy it in tincture of Arnica montana, compress it also prevents the formation of hematoma;
• Any funds based on chestnut camouflage bruising and prevent its occurrence on the skin;
• Another effective means in this situation - a parsley.

According to health workers, can get rid of a bruise in the case to put pressure on blood vessels. If redness formed, for example, on foot, you can drag it with an elastic bandage. This matter is also sold in drugstores. Dressings can be worn throughout the day, but several times need to remove it and make a break for 30 minutes to avoid the appearance of edema.

The most unpleasant situation - is when the bruise appears on the face. Especially if the owner is a girl. If his appearance could not prevent, then the best option - to paint his powder, foundation or self-tanning cream. Typically, in order to hide it is necessary to use a large amount of cosmetics.

10 ways to remove bruises

Bruise is an extravasation on the skin. It can be formed from accidental injury, after a fight or heavy tweaking. It happens that the bruise on the body occurs at the most inopportune moment. In each case, this appearance can not cause positive emotions, and the first thing to do - is to think about how to quickly get rid of bruises?

10 ways to quickly get rid of a bruise

There are several methods to quickly get rid of bruises. Among them are the 10 most popular ways:

• In every pharmacy, you can find a tool called fresh-water sponge. It is better that the drug is in the house, because it is an ideal source to combat any irregularities in the skin. This means a small amount is needed to mix with the oil. The second ingredient is also possible to use ordinary water or alcohol. Apply this texture should be right on the bruise. The procedure can be repeated several times a day. Pretty fast way. The very next day a hematoma will be much smaller;
• Creating a thermal effect will also help for faster time to disguise the bruise. This requires moisten the cloth with warm water and apply it to the sore spot. To enhance the effect must be applied on top of a scarf or other matter;
• However, it is recommended to make a compress and grinding. It is advisable to do it in conjunction with mustard oil;
• The fastest, but unpleasant way is to treat the bruise using a pepper patch. It must be applied to the painful area and maintain a few minutes, rapid relief is guaranteed. However, in such a way impossible to treat bruises formed on the face;
• The most popular method of any skin disease is iodine mesh. Cotton swabs should be dipped in the solution and to portray on-site hematoma grille;
• The easiest way to treat a bruise - buy medication in the pharmacy. For example, such means are widely known as Vishnevsky Ointment, Ointment Yam BK, "Viprosal B", "Arnica" and "Lioton";
• Less expensive, but not so spectacular is the treatment of folk remedies. In problem areas need to make plantain leaf and mother-and-stepmother. Hold the plant to bruise takes about 5 minutes. The procedure can be repeated throughout the day;
• Many years ago, when the drug is not present in such quantities as it is now, as a drug used against bruises medical cake. This method is one of the most effective and currently. For its preparation is required to mix the fresh horseradish, with natural butter and honey. The resulting thick consistency should be applied to the area of a bruise for a few minutes;
• Another effective tortilla - a mixture of natural clay and salt;
• Many people in the garden growing horseradish, but not every cottager knows that this is an excellent drug. Grated vegetables should be neatly folded into a cheesecloth. That should make a compress on the area lotion hematoma.

It should be borne in mind that the body of each person has a special structure and individual response to different drugs. In this case, and some fast method of dealing with bruises can act with varying efficiency.