Communication of cells

The biologist Dr. Doping speaks about nerve cell functions, methods of communication, and the immune system. As nerve cells transmit information? In what ways can communicate with cells? What chemicals involved in this communication? And how the immune system works?

The cells in a multicellular organism "understand" their environment, they provide information about themselves, and their functioning is correlated. For example, the brain cells to understand what makes a skin cell or a cell of language: is constantly coordinating efforts, so that the body was complete. These mechanisms for communication of cells by the way they give and receive signals, greatly evolved with the evolution of multicellular organisms.

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Nerve cells are able to receive information about what is happening in the external environment, transmit an electrical impulse in its membrane to the brain, process it, and return back to give a signal muscle. For example, a signal that you need to draw back his hand from the fire. They secrete a substance called a neurotransmitter. It interacts with the next nerve cell, it appears the nerve impulse, distributed, it comes to the next cell, and so on.

In the course of evolution, cells have learned to recognize not only the factors that contributed the cell, but also what is happening in neighboring cells. This makes the immune system. It constantly checks what is going on inside the cell. Normal cell is not dangerous for the organism, but in fact it can be a cell that is infected with a virus or a tumor cell, which is dangerous. Therefore, the cell must always know what's happening with their "neighbors."

Retroviruses in Human Evolution

Biologist Dr. Doping talks about the antiviral DNA, the process of accumulation of mutations and the promoters. How are retroviruses? How can they be inherited? When taking place the insertion of retroviruses in the human genome?

Retroviruses are viruses which integrate their DNA into the DNA of the host cell, and from there is carried out the expression of their viral genes read its copy of the genome, which in the form of RNA return in a protein shell and leaves the cell that leads to its death, because cell actually It is broken, and then infect cells and more.

When a virus infects not normal somatic cell, and the one from which then receives reproductive cells, the virus can be inherited as an ordinary mutation, or polymorphism, passed from parent to offspring. In the evolution of the so it happened many times, and now the retroviral DNA is about 6-7% of the human genome, which is equivalent to more than one million acts of incorporation of viruses in the host genome.

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When the virus has been integrated into the host genome, they can be active or inactive, and how they themselves did not lead in their sequences accumulate mutations that inactivated viral genes so that most of the viruses are present there now is in the form of ballast, then It has such sequences, which have the obvious nature of the virus, but can not do anything, because they may not be able to viral genes, and they seem to be completely harmless to the cell, from the point of view of the danger of a classic virus.

Synaptic plasticity

Neuroscientist Dr.Doping tells about memory mechanism, nerve cell plasticity and phosphorylation. How does the mechanism of our memory? What is the synaptic plasticity? And if the hypothesis is correct synaptic tag?

Nerve cells in the brain to form contacts with each other - the synapses. They are necessary to transmit information from one cell (presynaptic) to another (postsynaptic). This occurs by means of synaptic neurotransmitter release and closure of neurotransmitter interaction with specific receptors on the other synaptic end. One cell forms about 2000 synaptic terminals. Imagine a situation when we need to remember some phenomenon or event. According to the currently accepted hypothesis, the memory is stored in the brain in a distributed form, that is, not in one particular cell, and in many, interconnected neural networks. Various nerve cells to each other to form synaptic contacts and simultaneous activation of a group of nerve cells, a neural network leads to the fact that we remember the event or, alternatively, store it. The memory of the event - it is the memory of the simultaneous activity of a large group of cells.

The phenomenon of synaptic plasticity is very complex and involves almost all the molecular mechanisms that exist in the compartments of the cells, whether the postsynaptic membrane, spinule on the postsynaptic cell or axon terminals. Spines - which are small growths on the dendrites, which are predominantly in places of education synapses in the postsynaptic part of the synaptic contact, and axon terminals - thickening on the end of the axon, which is a separate compartment. And there, and there are changes associated with memory, strengthening ties between the two cells.

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One of the major unsolved problems include hypothesis synaptic tag. It was formulated by Richard Morris, a Scottish scientist, and in the first approximation, reads as follows: if in the synaptic contact any changes occur between the two cells, it must be somehow marked. He called it a synaptic tag - synaptic tag. According to this hypothesis, when there is a change of the synapse, inside the cell somehow put "box", and thanks to him, the cell knows which synapse is altered. What is this the synaptic tag, and whether it is general - is an open question, and one of the major in neuroscience.

Viral transduction of cells of the nervous system

Neuroscientist Dr.Doping tells about protein knockout, transgenic animals and viral delivery system.For some studies, scientists used the protein knockout? What are the challenges faced by professionals working with transgenic animals? And how the viral genetic material delivery system?

The development of modern science has reached phase of living organisms. People can make transgenic animals, which then can be used for practical purposes .They are also widely used for scientific research. To investigate the function of any protein, it is necessary to make a "knockout" actually remove the gene encoding this protein. Thus, it turns out the animal deprived of functions. People often use a knockout at the level of the whole organism. There are various possibilities: gene can be removed at some specific part, as may be the whole body and thus to investigate its function.

There are several types of viral deliveries systems: based on retrovirus, adeno-associated virus based, lentiviruses. The general sense is that there are viral particles carrying the desired genetic material. As a rule, this particle is not able to replicate in the body, a weapon only once shooting. It is necessary to carry out preliminary work to collect the virus particles in other cell lines, and only then it is possible to work with them. You can then move to the level of the whole organism and to work with experimental animals. Is now undergoing clinical studies using viral particles as vehicles for gene therapy.

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In order to obtain functional viral particles, it is necessary to take a line packers cells which are artificially introduced virus components. You can make 4 pieces For lentiviral particles that then, like a mosaic, gather the finished virus particle. It can be used in experiments.

FAQ: nerve cell structure

7 facts about the structure and interaction of neurons.

Our brain is one of the most complex systems in the body. It contains many different types of cells. Each of these cells may form a few thousand contact with other cells. In order to understand how cells communicate, how to work those contacts affects what we call memory, learning, memories, it is advisable to consider the unit cells and the morphology of the contacts between nerve cells, so-called synaptic contacts.

• 1.A nerve cell has a specific, quite clearly defined structure. There are several parts of the cell, the so-called compartments: it is the body of the cell, the largest, most conspicuous part. It contains the cell nucleus, in the nucleus contains DNA, ie the entire genetic information of what it was, what it is and how it work. Furthermore neurons have two types of processes: dendrites and axons. The axon of a neuron in one of the dendrites may be many. The information received through the cell dendrites and axons issues. The information in the nervous system - is, in fact, the electrical pulses.
• 2.Each nerve cell has a membrane potential. Different cells it may be slightly different. When a nerve cell lives, when it is active, there is a constant oscillation of the membrane potential. It may be small fluctuations and strong, sharp fluctuations. Small vibrations occur, typically due to the fact that the cell receives the information from other nerve cells, which - due to postsynaptic potentials. And there is a sharp change in membrane potential - action potential. The occurrence of an action potential in the nerve cell leads to the fact that she transmits information. That is, this leads to the fact that it emits a neurotransmitter from the axon terminals.
• 3.At the end of the axon has a thickening, called the axon terminals. These axon terminal is a part of the presynaptic interneuron contacts. Intercellular junctions between two nerve cells is called a synapse. Accordingly, the synapse is composed of a presynaptic portion postsynaptic portion, the synaptic cleft. Now actively investigated the so-called extracellular matrix, which is believed to have also a very important part of the function of the synapse, as well as all the molecular cascades that operate presinapse, and like all the molecular cascades that operate postsinapse.
• 4.When a nerve cell action potential arises from the presynaptic terminal neurotransmitter ejected. A neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft and postsynaptic membrane reaches. At the end of the presynaptic contains many different sized synaptic vesicle containing the neurotransmitter. When an action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal, the vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane and spew out its contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter synaptic cleft by presynaptic membrane migrates to and reacts with postsynaptic receptors. At the postsynaptic membrane there are a large number of different receptors.
  
  For example, the most extensively studied are the glutamate receptors. Glutamate - the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system. To calm down your nerve, avoid depression and anxiety, just use Phenibut, Phenazepam, Afobazol, Selank.
• 5.When reaching neurotransmitter receptor on the postsynaptic membrane is opened receptors associated with ion channels. The fact that the nerve cell membrane potential generated by the difference in the concentration of several ions inside or outside the cell. When the ion channels open, ions outside can enter into the cell, which leads to changes in membrane potential, and as a result, may cause an action potential in the postsynaptic cell. In fact, this process is the transfer of information between nerve cells.
• 6.This scheme is very common, working for almost all types of nerve cells. Currently actively studied specific links between specific cell types in specific brain structures. In order to subsequently compare the work of certain synapses with specific behaviors or specific forms of training. For example, in Scotland, there is a laboratory Andrey Rozov, which explores the relationship between hippocampal principal neurons and interneurons in the hippocampus. Hippocampus - this is one of the most intensively studied brain structures associated with learning and memory. In this laboratory study of it comes from the interneuron neurotransmission brake on the principal neuron on excitatory neurons of the hippocampus. This relationship depends on the activation of different types of receptors - receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid. Unlike glutamate, a neurotransmitter that is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the system. For treceiving GABA buy Pantogam.
• 7.Study of this connection is crucial for understanding how the nervous system is the activation of some cells, while other cell inhibition activity. This kind of research is needed to understand how, in principle, the brain works, why we can focus on any one thought, or how we do some one particular action, and any group of cells, which brain structures that are involved.

Features of the development of the human brain

Molecular biologist Dr. Doping tells about the formation of the brain, the formation of synaptic contacts and chimpanzee brain. What are the stages of development of the human brain? How are contacts between neurons? What are the differences in brain development in chimps and humans?

Most of our brain development occurs after birth. Even the brain is formed before birth chimpanzees 1/3, 2/3 - after. In macaques, about half of the brain is formed before birth. Human brain before birth formed by only 25%, and after it grows to very high rate during the first year of life. The first year of the development of the human brain - a period of growth, but that does not mean that the brain is fully formed at this stage. The brain must form contacts between neurons.

Year-old child's brain contains a very small amount of mature synaptic contacts. Unlike the macaques, which for the first year of life, everything is shaped and even free of unnecessary contacts from one year old child, this process is just beginning, and it continues, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, the region responsible for complex interactions, for a long time . We do not know and it is difficult to say when there is a peak, but the process can go 5-7 and maybe even 10 years. If you look at the seven-year child, his brain will be 2-3 times more contacts between neurons than that of an adult. But until it contacts optimized.

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When we looked at the formation of synaptic contacts and the expression of genes that are responsible for formation, we saw that in chimpanzees, this process is very different from that of humans and is much more reminiscent of the dynamics that we see macaques. During the first year of life of the chimpanzees, this process is almost complete and, moreover, modification and optimization of the contacts is also very fast. In five years the chimpanzee brain is formed. It turns out that the human child has a tremendous amount of time compared to the chimpanzee or macaque, during which his brain is not yet formed.

FAQ: The reverse design of the brain

7 facts about the direction in neuroscience, trying to understand and to artificially recreate the structure of the brain

What is a reverse design of the brain? It is connected with the problem of understanding - as we understand it, and what is this understanding. Now in the world widespread method, which is called "reverse construction of brain." Discussions on this subject began in the seventies of the last century, but then computer technology lagged behind the playback capabilities of the processes occurring in the brain. Therefore, the talk was, and real effort could not be done.

• 1.Now, around 2007, these conversations emerged with renewed vigor. It became clear that the information capacity of computer technology is not inferior, and perhaps exceeds the capabilities of computing and decision-making that can be called a computer technology. The only reason we still do not have the thinking machines, speaking better than us - because we do not really understand how the processes in our brains are organized with an understanding of how we understand each other.
  
  Quite a lot of effort and money invested in neuroscience today. One of the goals of neuroscience - the study of the mechanisms of understanding. And specialists and non-specialists say that the theme itself in scale value to society is not inferior to the famous theme of the Manhattan Project or the Soviet nuclear project, because, indeed, it is one of the main objectives of mankind - to understand the essence of life. To some extent we already understand it, as we understand the mechanism of RNA and proteins. Now we need to understand the mechanism of our brain.
• 2.Why has the project, comparable in strength to Manhattan, found nowhere else in the world? Attempts, even very powerful, it was a lot, in particular in the February issue of the famous Nature discussed how to invest half a billion euros in the European reverse brain design project, Human Brain Project. Why in the end we decided not to invest? There are many reasons: one is that there is no external pressure, is forced to move in this direction. Driving forces of today are two: first - a curiosity about which Academician Artsimovich said it was the only thing that the scientists involved - satisfy your own curiosity at public expense, and the second - the commercial benefits. They say, that list them immediately and medical, too - because if we understand how the brain works, we can use it.
  
  Why are not very eager to invest? Because the terms for which this project can be carried out, called very different. I stand for a very short time, as is often said: "What do you mean, Aristotle could not understand how the brain is wired. And you suddenly - for a limited time! This century, millennium, or there is something else. " In general, probably, all the same it is necessary to do.
• 3.There are many different approaches. One of them - this is a classic bulldozer - "let us all, particularly the brain, analyze." Now there are ways if you do not take it apart into atoms, then, in any case, cut so as to understand what it is, cells, and how they relate to each other. This is especially good to do in animals. Their sacrifice is not good, but science can be and can be. And people, if possible, only this time in a stage in which the brain is obviously undergone some changes. But here it is not clear how much he still reproduce by what will be able to fix. So, from one point of view, this project is awful material and resource-intensive, on the other hand, is no guarantee that it will bring success, not. However, it is now the main direction in which the first attempt to understand the structure of the brain, and then with the help of computer simulations to reproduce it in pieces.
  
  In this direction, our compatriot Eugene M. Izhikevich working in California, not so long ago, set a world record: he was able to simulate the work of ten in the eleventh degree of the neurons within one second. Several years ago, this simulation took him fifty days. He set a world record, entered the Guinness Book of Records, and received large grants it to continue its work. Zhokevich modeled elements very similar to neurons, but the full circuit of the brain did not create - it was just work on the record. Everything these can cause huge depression and anxiety, but one can cope with it by Phenibut, Phenazepam, Selank and Phenotropil.
• 4.Another powerful project, of which I spoke - Human Brain Project Henry Markram. The headquarters of the project is located in Lausanne, the Swiss Polytechnic Institute, and sponsored by IBM - they are more or less trying to see how the brain works and to reproduce his work.
  
  There are many theoretical projects in which people are trying to simulate a particular part of the brain. In our country, our group is the Russian project reverse engineering the brain. We offer, in comparison with previous data, a ridiculously small number: We hereby declare that to the beginning of 2016 will be able to get the full circuit of the brain. But we're going to do it, using for the most advanced computational tool - the human brain itself. We plan to organize a group of about 20-25 people that can do the job for three years.
• 5.On the understanding of the work is to identify all of those details the mechanisms by which it works. If we have ten to the eleventh neurons, the parts can be ten in eleventh. On the other hand, it is known that they do not work all. At least ten among those in the tenth to eleventh ten - a granular cerebellar cortical cells, small cells - they only have four inputs and outputs of all hundred, while there is an average of ten thousand, and inputs and outputs. Not all neurons are the same. According to our estimates, the principles on which it is committed, not so much - they can be a hundred, although elements of the nervous system - ten in the eleventh. Parts of the nervous system of the person the order of thousands, however, even these are not all departments are working on the basis of its independent principles. We believe that the order of hundreds of principles, to date twenty principles can be drawn, and one of them - this is a question of data format.
• 6.It is known that in the computer data is presented in binary. In the binary system, in addition, there are systems with floating and fixed point - they allow calculation or provide information. The next moment there is consideration of how the format of the data presented in the nervous system. And this is really something like format c point. As similar hypotheses: data format allows us to understand why, despite the fact that we are engaged in one and the same object in the brain
  
  As a rule, many neurons have so-called-grandmother neurons, but not really the grandmother and actress Jennifer Aniston or Bill Clinton - is experimentally registered things when a neuron responds only when there is in any kind of object, which he named .
  
  Experimentally, it is clear that these objects are many, otherwise I would have not found them. But if so many of them on every object, all objects would not be enough of the brain. Considerations about the data format allows to realize that in spite of the fact that each object is a lot of neurons, however, the number of the objects may be the same as the number of neurons, since neurons do all combinations, but not alone. In one combination, he participates in one another - in the other. It's something that gradually rises out of the vast sea of ignorance.
• 7.What is the difference between man and animal? In general, from paleontology know that biological evolution has ended somewhere around a hundred thousand years ago. Since we exist as we are. Tools of the Trade and battle appeared a million years ago, but for a very large number of years they have completely changed. And now there is evidence that almost raven is able to create a tool, with which you can get a person. That is, the gun is not the property of the person. And about fifty thousand years ago there was some kind of evolution, which is linked to the fact that in general, all at once appeared, there was art, human life is doubled. And there is no tangible evidence of what happened.
  
  One natural hypothesis that arises here is that while the language was invented. Methods of communication have always been, they have all kinds of animals, but was invented language to the extent that when people finally realized that the other - the same people. I do not think that dogs are aware that other creatures - dogs. They know it, but do not realize. Here people come to realize that they are people. And they are aware of it by means of the mechanisms by which they used to just navigate the world. And realizing this, they littered the environment a huge amount of what it was not - the words.
• If earlier understanding of the world of animals was due mainly to the movement of the external world, then, after people have created this artificial environment, understanding they have extended to the artificial environment - is, in fact, there is a human characteristic. It is essential in this human that it is connected to the collective action of people, it is not the individual moments. Alone, you can not come up with language. So this first man-made revolution took place due to the fact that the brain really evolved. Develop as a result of evolution, because, the more intelligent the animal, so it is better to get food, and could dominate, and, in the end, this evolution has led to the fact that there is a new built environment.
  
  There is a feeling that we are now on the threshold of a new evolution. With high-tech, high technology, created by people in the course of the social evolution, which began with the time when actually ended biological, now stands on the threshold of understanding of who we really are, an understanding of how we understand.

FAQ: Brain-Communicators

7 facts about a new model of communication between humans and the environment

In 1999, US researchers published an interesting article. Imagine: a laboratory rat is slightly restricted in movement so that she could not escape. Rat languished thirst and therefore quickly learned to move the foot a special lever, which pushed the water bottle to her. This is not surprising, rats very quickly learn this trick is actually in the same session.

• 1.The singularity of this experiment was that the brain implanted rats was about forty or fifty thin electrodes that measured the electrical activity of fifty or sixty nerve cells simultaneously. The researchers wanted to know whether there is something unique sequence in the excitation of the cells, the rat paw intends to move the lever. It was important to spy on the very intention of the rat. Animals as people first, something intended to do, and then doing it.
  
  However, since we assembled technique intention of the animal, the same technique can be and to fulfill this intention, push the trough even before the rat paw begins to move the lever. And, strange to say, as soon as the rat thirsty, and it would be necessary to move the presser foot lever, it does not do - drinking bowl moves up by itself. After a very short time, the rat, relatively speaking, adds tabs, and one only intention is itself trough.
• 2.The technology of direct brain to communicate with an actuating device called a "brain-computer interface," because scientists have, in this case, American researchers have come up with a technological chain, built between the brain and a computer: by measuring the electrical activity of the brain, the decryption of this activity, the construction of the intention model and transmitting commands to the actuators. It turns out that the animal can control the power of intention in the event of the external environment. It was not the first and not the last in the development of interface problems brain-computer, in the creation of neuro-communicators.
• 3.What will give the appearance of neuro-communicators that will bring the new into our world? Apparently, there will come a whole new stage in the development of technological means of communication between man and the environment. Electronic and computing means for decoding the electrical activity we can make a direct understanding of the intentions of the brain before the brain sends commands to muscles. After the biological system too inertial motor - in order to ensure the activity of the muscles, it is necessary first to increase blood flow in muscles, to deliver to the desired site of action, and so on metabolites. If you use neuro-communicators, the decision taken by the brain, immediately intercepted by electronic computing means and without delay transferred actuators.
• 4.To date, we have long been in the electronic communication network (eg, mobile phones). But even more we are immersed in the communication network of the Internet, communication is not with each other, and with a kind of gigantic memory, which is organized by electronic computing means. Giant memory - this is what accumulates in the Internet: video and audio display, printed information - that is, such a multimedia virtual environment in which we find ourselves from reality. But there are also more prosaic environment: car controls, washing machines, electric stove in the kitchen - everything is digital. It is compact, cheap, it can be easily integrated in an appropriate unit, and it remains only to apply the digital team, one, one, zero, two, and so on. It can lead to huge depression and feeling of anxiety, but one can cope with it by the help of Phenibut, Phenazepam, Selank and Phenotropil.
• 5.Could the brain serve these digital team, if you connect to it using the "brain-computer interface" technology. It turns out that this is quite possible. Now patients who are not able to move any muscle, can arbitrarily changing the electrical activity of the brain's own type texts, to command, to carry out their intentions through brain-computer interface. A record electrical activity - it is a job for the school radio school: only need to stock up on chips reinforcement, little resistors and capacitors.
  
  With neuro-communicators people have access to the management of the digital world directly from the brain - to receivers of digital codes, the brain as a natural information-analytical agency, will receive direct contact with artificial computational systems. We will be able to fulfill your desires, just by thinking about them. Did they change this situation our world?
• 6.I think people still remain a man, in spite of the expected future dominance neuro-communicators that gradually penetrate into all the appliances are built in industrial systems, vehicles, mobile phones, radio, TV ... However, the richness of the inner world can not be express generated in neuro-communicators commands to actuators. Only natural speech, accompanying her lip movements, facial expressions, gestures, muscle actions will allow a person to express himself. People among neuro-communicators will communicate with each other by natural means. We can communicate through the visual arts, architecture, the art of music - it's all muscle creation. They are much more than brain-communicators, adapted by millions of years of evolution to a thin display pictures of our inner world. But in all other respects, there do not require very fast control, switching on and off devices - brain-communicators there are people to help.
  
  Perhaps someone will be tempted to place brain-communicators a healthy person just inside the skull, and not as now - on the skin surface of the head. Now it is done in patients and only for health reasons. For example, in patients with severe lesions of the motor areas. Implantation of such registers in a healthy person's head is totally unacceptable, even if he agrees to it. Such actions violate the freedom of the individual, as the man himself can no longer be released from the implanted chip.
• 7.What now there are problems in neuro-development of smartphones based on brain-computer interfaces? Of course, we have reached a certain level in the development of technology transfer commands directly from the brain to the actuator. However, the low speed of the command does not allow even just will approach to the normal rate of typing on the keyboard. An inexperienced user gaining two fingers on the keyboard to the workshop of letters per minute. A brain-computer interface gives only fifteen characters per minute. Another limitation - number of teams. We can not get a lot of neuro-command systems of communication. Two or three or four, you can unravel the intentions of using neuro-interface technology - as much as intentions or images of people can consistently reproduce in the imagination. Unclear the blurry images, of course, can not be deciphered in the brain's electrical activity. Furthermore, even if the specific intent can be decoded, then no context it can be properly taken into action, whereas it is naturally performed, for example, can be blocked ethical or legal context. All these problems - homework for scientists.

Technology of thoughts

Psychophysiologist Dr.Doping speaks about the human brain, the simulation of reality and the design of ideas.What is the number of possible states of the human brain? How has the special property of the human brain? And if there are technical possibilities to study the mental world of man?

Recently there has been a hoax brain: the brain produces something that is not available to research, something intangible, or, on the contrary, the brain is the effect, and thus begins to work. Meanwhile, those who work with the brain, researchers are applying these or other methods in order to understand how the brain works, confident that the brain - this is a purely financial education and working only on those principles, which do not contradict the physical nature. But, after all, the brain has a secret.

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I am confident that the brain - is the most complex, perfect and incredible matter in the universe. Incredible because it is a unique opportunity not only for Earth, not only for five - six billion years of its existence, but also for all spaces, all the depths of the universe. Of course, in the universe there may be something like our brains, but the chances are slim. Therefore, we should appreciate the object that everyone has in his head.

Now there is no such selection as evolution, not dying one who is less fit. We care about each other, our society, so there is no directed evolution. But the world, who created the brain - it is in all of us. Is it possible to penetrate into this world? Of course. We are talking with each other, and this conversation, verbal communication, it is penetrating into each other. Scientists would like to receive the new channel, not verbal, not muscle, to have direct contact with these images. Is it possible? This is the subject of a separate discussion.

FAQ: Technology of ideas

5 facts about the structure of the human brain, how it works and unique features

It's about what a brain in a technological sense. The fact that recently there has been his hoax. It is said that the brain produces something that is not available to research, something intangible, or, on the contrary, the brain affects something unknowable, and so he begins to work. At the same time, those who work with the brain by the nature of their profession, the researchers who use these or other instrumental methods, still believe that the brain - this is a purely financial education and it works on such principles, which do not contradict the physical nature.

• 1.The uniqueness of the brain

The brain is the most complex, perfect and incredible matter in the universe. Incredible because it is a unique opportunity not only for the Earth and for the whole period of its existence, but also for all the depths of the universe. Judge for yourself: in the brains of nearly one hundred billion nerve cells. In the liver and intestine cells even more, but that other cells, this "cell-soldiers" performing the same function. A brain cells - a kind of collecting centers, which through contacts (synapses) continuously exchange messages encoded in sequences of nerve impulses. Each nerve cell can have up to ten thousand contacts - get just a million billion nerve connections. Despite its complexity, this giant network is designed so that in a fraction of a second can be found and to ensure the exchange of messages between any pair of cells.

• 2.Variability of brain states

Millions of billions of operational elements are a lot or a little? The most advanced processors - two or three billion of operational units, memories, experts say. In the brain there are a million billion of operational elements. And in computers these elements has two states: 0 and 1. A contact between nerve cells may have up to 15-20 states, that is, to switch positions. Switch any one contact of a million billion in position 4 to position 7 - and here's a new state of the brain. If you count the combinatorics of possible states of the brain, it turns out that the number of these states exceeds the number of atoms in the entire universe. That is the human brain, weighing only three hundred grams per kilogram, such as Einstein, comparable in its variance with the whole universe. Of course, not all combinations of neuronal contacts are functional states, ie they are not used in the brain to encode information. But no matter how small the proportion of functional contacts, it will still be an astronomical number.

• 3.Why do we need the brain

For all the seemingly obvious answer, but exactly why is it needed? In all textbooks written nervous system (or brain or nerve ganglia) need to "balance the needs of the living creatures with the capacity of the environment", in other words, for the animal adaptation to the environment. That is, the brain needs to animals in the first place for the organization of their behavior in order to survive: to find food, escape from enemies, find a pair to extend the kind, etc. By the standard set of animal brain function adds a unique feature unique to human brain: the construction of virtual models of the physical world; in fact, the brain has learned to design their inner world. Available models of the physical world has given man enormous advantages: it became possible to play virtual versions of the future behavior in the construction plans.

• 4.A vicious circle of knowledge

Full-scale dynamic model of the world, built on the basis of the individual's own experience - that's a worthy task for having astronomical complexity of the human brain. Creating models of the diagnostics options for the future, and finally the generation of ideas about the structure of external and man's inner world, about the mechanisms of the brain! Metaphorically, one can say that the idea of becoming an equally important energy source for the brain than glucose, and more - the need of the body, the plans of his conduct, guidelines in the future. The source of the ideas is the human cognitive activity, cognitive function of the brain comes to the fore. To improve mental functionality you can with Phenotropil and Semax, to protect it from stress, anxiety and depression with Phenibut and Selank.

• 5.Is it possible to contact information between the brain and the computer

The incredible complexity of brain circuitry, an astronomical number of contacts between nerve cells and the lack of keys to decrypt codes interneural seemingly do absolutely impossible to connect the information to the brain. Nevertheless, in recent years, scientists have begun to grope technologies to "eavesdrop" brain commands and transmit them directly to external actuators, bypassing the nerves and muscles. This technology, called interfaces brain - computer (IMC), is based more on the properties of the brain to adapt to the conditions offered to him than on theoretical insights neurophysiologists. Recent only created a direct channel for the transmission of electrical activity in the brain actuators and brain, received in his charge that the control lever, learned to use it. Of course, for the scientists was a lot of work had to be attached to the registration of brain electrical activity, to create the appropriate electrode and amplifying systems, isolated from this activity are components that the brain could catch management. Everything was done, post stroke patients with implanted electrodes in their brains have learned to control the robotic arm so that they could take for himself with a chocolate table or beverage container. Even more easily manage these patients to type text on the computer screen without any muscular action. You do not have to implant the electrodes, just fix them on the scalp. Each person may then try to force his intentions to control toy car, a computer game or a hypertext reference.