Antipsychotics, Neuroleptics. Part 3

I will continue to acquaint you with neuroleptics. Some wondered (and who, it seems, even indignant) - say, why are you telling about any old thing? Where, say, new, atypical antipsychotics, which enjoys all the enlightened Western world? Wait, comrades. Will you and the protein will whistle. And atypical antipsychotics cherry on the cake. Already familiar - as with all representatives. Moreover, that they, too, continue to apply on the notorious West. And nothing, no one scream- ah, the last century!

Neuleptil. Periciazine. Despite the fact that this is not the weakest neuroleptic, he crushes not delusional system does not cut channels of communication with the cosmos and plug the hole from the outside. But the effect is quite good, as the equalizer behavior. Clarify: Concealer psychopathic behavior. Not as intimidating as corrective beating, but nevertheless. Therefore also applies if a psychopath came decompensation, or debility patient (debility in this case is not a curse, and clarification of the degree of mental retardation) decided to make a row or imbecile hooligan. Yes, whatever it was due to this psychopathic behavior - Neuleptil do its job. Neurolepsy is a little less and a little weaker than haloperidol, but causes.

Sonapax. Thioridazine (INN). Also it can be used as a proof-reader behavior - but softer than Neuleptil. Sometimes a good idea manifests itself in the treatment of hysterical neurosis and decompensation in hysteroid psychopaths. Just as neuleptil, however does not have any appreciable effect on hallucinations or delusions. And, despite some harmony in the title, it does not have a soporific effect, so " get high" fans will be disappointed. Especially if you decide to drink, as usual, not one or two tablets, as a leaf, to get high. To get high, but not as expected: neurolepsy has not been canceled, and while it is considerably weaker than that of haloperidol or neuleptil, a large dose of it is still manifest itself.

Teraligen. Alimemazinum. Soft (well, again to compare with) an antipsychotic, also not having a noticeable effect on the hallucinations or delusions, because not used during an exacerbation, and even then, when in remission. And basically not in order to prevent re-sharpening, and in order to appease or secure sleep. Unlike tranquilizers, does not give the feeling of relaxation or pleasant mild euphoria, so minimal risk of abuse, and the possibility of psychological addiction is absent. Why they did not replace tranquilizers? Because not all cases Teraligen can achieve the same effect as in the case of tranquilizers. However, in the neuroses and psychopathy decompensation it is used quite often. Neurolepsy it almost does not matter.

Eglonil. Sulpiride. One of the first so-called atypical antipsychotics, which appeared in 1968. Noticeably softer than the same chlorpromazine or haloperidol, rarely causing neurolepsy - but also much weaker acting on delusions and hallucinations, although this action (particularly hallucinations) is still available. Where eglonil really good shows itself - so it is in the treatment of hysterical and hypochondriacal patients, especially those who have symptoms of the disease masquerading as unpleasant sensations in the body. Including when there is cenestopathy. Plus delivers mild calming effect. Plus possesses antiemetic effects. One of the side effects that can limit the use of Eglonil - this increase in prolactin. Not always and not at all, but still. I understand that some of the ladies dream of an increase in breast size, but used for this purpose eglonil - not the best solution.

Azaleptin. Clozapine. In psychiatry, used since 1971. Also, as Eglonil, it is one of the first representatives of the atypical antipsychotics - are somewhat different point of application, much less the ability to cause neuroleptic syndrome (although also quite capable), with - a powerful effect. But not very selective - that is, no sighting does not act on delusions nor hallucinations. But good calms, relieves great anxiety and great excitement (which is strongly expressed in the framework of psychosis), pretty good to calm the fellow in a manic state, and has a powerful hypnotic effect. Again - also within the framework of psychosis. Healthy human drug may turn off from communion for a few days! By the way, these effects used by heroin addicts to survive the break-up. Azaleptin caused something like a drug delirium on them, and a few days spent in a zombie-like state, erased from memory, but it is very well remembered by those who have to look for such a person.

Truth Serum

I'll tell you about the method, which was used in Soviet psychiatry. I missed it, so you have to enjoy the lectures, which we read in refresher courses on psychopharmacology. It will focus on amytal -caffeine disinhibition. Or a truth serum as drug was nicknamed.

First, a few words about why this method of general psychiatrists was needed. There are situations in which the really important to know what actually thinks and what the patient says nothing. Especially the patient with delirium, which he carefully hides - they say, you only tell you how to be delighted as devour! Or of the subject on the stationary forensic psychiatric examination, which has committed a serious offense, and we need to understand his motives, and man is silent, as a partisan or lying like this ... which is the gray. Or, in cases where the same person has committed a serious offense by virtue of illness (for delusional reasons, or under the influence of command hallucinations) already assigned compulsory treatment, and after a while you need to find out whether or not managed to achieve stable remission and possible treatment change to outpatient or friend just cleverly hides the symptoms.

I will not evaluate the ethical side of this process: here, if desired, you can always find a lot of arguments "for" and "against." Just this method existed, it was used, it gave its results, and it should be mentioned, if we consider the history of psychiatry and psychopharmacology: from the song words can not erase.

Now about the technique. Used for its conduct amobarbital sodium in combination with caffeine. amobarbital sodium - a barbiturate, barbituric acid derivative, a series of tools that have been used once as sedatives and hypnotics, but for several reasons, including the effect of addiction have been replaced by a more secure means. However, still used his close relatives - benzonal, phenobarbital and sodium thiopental, but the purpose of their use is quite different. Caffeinated all familiar, it needs no introduction. To cope with stress buy Phenibut, Phenylpiracetam, Phenazepam and Amitriptyline.

Dosage and application of technology do not give - to avoid. Anyway, if anyone finds out - it is not from me.

The effect looks similar to intoxication: euphoria develops after a few minutes, and the patient is willing to talks, answering questions. Including those that before answering, and not going. Surrounding it no longer perceives hostile, and so many facts and ideas, as well as plans and intentions, which he had previously concealed now sets out freely. At the end of the procedure, typically sleep occurs.

There is evidence that caffeine-amytal disinhibition are also used to work with heavy and prolonged neurosis - in order to get the patient to open up, and in this state to conduct psychotherapy. Again, I did not find the use of this technique, so it's difficult to judge how effective was like therapy.

Antipsychotics, Neuroleptics. Part 2

It is time to continue to acquaint you with the contents of the magic suitcase psychiatrists. The last time we spoke about haloperidol, and triftazin, Tisercinum. Now - all of those neuroleptics, we are widely used for many years, but which seems to have passed into history: in any case, in Russia they have not been re-registered in the last ten or fifteen years have disappeared from the arsenal. Nevertheless, it is worth remembering about them.

Majeptil. Another name thioproperazine. It is very powerful antipsychotic. However, its action is quite selective. Therefore, in the first place in psychiatry majeptil used to treat patients with catatonic schizophrenia (regardless of what is currently dominated - catatonic stupor or catatonic excitation), as well as patients with hebephrenic schizophrenia. In some cases - adjusting the dosage to a horse, that is, making the so-called shock therapy majeptilic. Pretty harsh measure, but enough to see the patient in catatonic excitement - and you will realize that it is justified. And above all, in its effect. Neuroleptic majeptil syndrome is more frequent and severe than haloperidol.

Trisedyl. The international non-proprietary name - trifluperidol. And the chemical formula, and of close to haloperidol. But stronger. And significantly. It used in cases where haloperidol give in to "Voice" or "visions". Why not replace it entirely? Because of powerful neuroleptic syndrome, which causes trisedyl more willing and more than haloperidol. Furthermore hallucinations (and to a lesser extent, delusions) trisedyl used to treat the same catatonic schizophrenia, and also to quickly break the manic state or by TIR at schizo-affective disorder.

IMAP. Fluspirilenum. Intra-Muscle antipsychotic. Redeptin .A little more impact on the hallucinations, delirium slightly weaker, but most importantly - it does not slow down, but rather activates. And actions not only on the productive (the same hallucinations and delusions), but what is important - on the negative symptoms. By reducing the depth of the emotional-volitional decline, struggling with apathy (but that apathy within the defect of personality, not to be confused with the usual in our understanding of apathy!) And this property flyushpirilena used to the patient after the hospital, as they say, brought back to life. By the same active life, with the restoration of the lost social skills and relationships. With convenient - it relates to sustained release formulations (ie, renewable) period of validity, and it is usually done once a week (it was issued in the form of injections). Neuroleptic Syndrome is roughly the same frequency and power as haloperidol, so it is usually administered along with the correctors (Cyclodolum).

Orap. Pimozide. It pretty good acts on the paranoid syndrome, so frequently and successfully used for its treatment, when the patient has already been discharged from hospital, but any symptoms, though weakened, still exist (and paranoia - a thing hard), or is (and it is most often available) the likelihood that these symptoms will return soon. What it was comfortable - it's the fact that giving a pill Orap could be once a day. Pimozide acted for a long time. In the morning I took - all day free. Neuroleptic Syndrome causes about as often, and somewhat stronger than haloperidol.

Frenolon. The international non-proprietary name - metofenazate. Neuroleptic which is essentially used for the treatment of psychosis itself, because its action on delusions, hallucinations, agitation or powerful mania was quite weak. But it worked well, if it was necessary to cope with the lethargy and apathy in the same schizophrenic psychosis is acute. Or to cope with anxiety and fear in a patient with long-standing neurosis as long reception tranquilizers guaranteed to get you to get used to it. Neuroleptic syndrome is rare and much weaker than haloperidol.

Antipsychotics, Neuroleptics. Part 1

About the history of drug discovery of chlorpromazine, which can be considered the bread of psychiatry, I said. It is time to continue the story of the other antipsychotics. If we reject the romance and high-sounding words, the psychiatrist can be compared with a plumber. Yes, thus plumber who came with his magic suitcase do some magic over expansion tank in your loft, so as not to drip from under the roof.

Here we also have a magical suitcase. However, on the drugs that are in it, it is not written "on the dope", "sclerosis", "from bitchis" and "from involution psychosis," but in general something similar is expected. Unfortunately, we still have not reached such heights and Zen, to act directly on the cause of most mental disorders. And few people in other industries reached. Infectiologist feel well, they micro-killer skill more or less perfected. And we have to beat in the main by the tails. More precisely, according to symptoms.

So I try to give a general idea of what antipsychotic use and what is assigned. Especially emphasize that this opus in any case does not claim nor depth, nor scientific. Although a novice or intern psychiatrist may well come in handy. And just to improve the educational level goes. Traditionally remind: do not use the goods received knowledge in practice, if you are not a psychiatrist. What will be read - just the tip of the iceberg, it is enough for underwater part of a caravan of "Titanic"! So, let's begin.

Haloperidol. In the course of 1957. Widely used until now. Most selectively acts on hallucinations - that visual, auditory up, and on their other types too. And regardless of what these hallucinations are caused by - delirium tremens, the next (or first) exacerbation of schizophrenia, hallucinosis with organic brain damage, dementia when there - it does not matter. We must close windows and closeoutlet in the beyond - haloperidol closes. Therefore, it can be taken as a standard of reference in regard to actions hallucinations.

In addition, the haloperidol use, if it is necessary to reason with the patient in a manic state. Zen acquired hard, but very specific. If at hand is nothing else, haloperidol can interrupt the agitation in large doses. There is an interesting pattern: in a large dose, it crestfallen, in a small - on the contrary, activate the (sometimes disinhibited that it is necessary to take into account, selecting treatment). Haloperidol in microdozes sometimes used for the treatment of nervous tics, chorea, the syndrome of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome, hysterical and hypochondriac neuroses.

However, it should be remembered that the drug is quite hard, and all of the other drugs of this series it more and more (with the exception of three or four representatives) gives neuroleptic syndrome.

Triftazin. Stelazin. Or trifluoperazine, if you use the international non-proprietary name. If haloperidol can be called standard in the fight against hallucinations, then triftazin - the same standard in the crash delusional systems. Yes, he has, and anti-hallucinatory effects - but not nearly as impressive as in relation to nonsense. World behind the scenes, bad neighbors, bloody relatives bad oriented government and even the ZOG - all at once become white and fluffy.

In fact, of course, nonsense is not always easy here and so inferior to their ideological positions, but nonetheless. A more selective in this regard the drug in the last century (as it sounds, as well!), It was necessary to look for more.

In small doses triftazin good acts on obsessive thoughts and actions, so it is often used in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder - but, again, in small doses. Remember that a drop of nicotine makes the horse? So she did hamster tearing apart! Because he, too, can cause neuroleptic syndrome - albeit somewhat less frequent and weaker than haloperidol, but also a little pleasant.

Have triftazine and antiemetic effect. And even 20 times stronger than that of chlorpromazine. But something I have not seen even once, so it was given to those who are swayed in an airplane or car. Even a quarter of the tablet.

Tisercinum. Or, as it is called in the international nonproprietary - levomepromazine. As chlorpromazine, does not have any particularly outstanding effect on nonsense or the hallucinations. But good brakes. Just like the emergency brake for an armored train. And at the same time and soothes. However, this should not be taken calmdown someone who just a little alarmed, watching news on TV. For cut down so that after a few days will have sway. No, the thing for those who are agitated is not a child. Or anxious, but so that no one really does not take a tranquilizer. No, it is also too large-for panic attacks.

Therefore, it applies under the Tisercinum psychoses that occur here and now with the good so agitated, strong anxiety and intense fear. In addition, it can be used when anxiety and feelings interfere with such a patient to sleep. That is, in fact hypnotic effect (by the way, like Phenazepam) of this medicine is not, but good facilitate falling asleep to the patient, reducing anxiety, calming and causing inhibition.

Neuroleptic Syndrome This medicine is given less and weaker than, for example haloperidol or chlorpromazine, but it greatly reduces the blood pressure, which should be considered, too.

Soon I will continue to acquaint you with other antipsychotic drugs, and talk about why they are needed.

The bitter taste of Haloperidol

When in the early fifties in psychiatric practice Chlorpromazine (Aminazine) was invented, it was a breakthrough. This was the beginning of a new era in psychiatry - the era of neuroleptics. Radically change the tactics of the patient: Now many people could not hold in hospitals for years and decades, and now it was possible to appoint or nominate treatment and to let them go home! Not all, of course, but many, very many. However, as some adherents of pure science, with the advent of chlorpromazine clinics disappeared last real mentally ill - ostensibly so neuroleptics changed the picture of the disease. But you know these inveterate humanists burdened with a history - they do not feed bread, let alone generate medical diagnostic decapitation. Or catch a representative sample of the pygmies and chimpanzees, and then forced to live together for a long time, passionately and presumably happy - if only to look in the children who will go.

Following aminazine appeared a number of neuroleptics, more selectively acting on different types of psycho-symptomatic: for example, Stelazine (aka triftazine) was good for the relief of delirium, haloperidol - to deal with hallucinations. But, as is usually the case with any medication, after a brief period the fitting laurels panacea got the first taste of tar. Patients antipsychotics liked far less than designating their doctors. Why? It's all in one of the side effects - neuroleptic syndrome.

Strictly speaking, neuroleptic syndrome, or neurolepsy - this is a special version of the so-called extrapyramidal disorders (the term comes from neurology, extrapyramidal system controls the movements of the person, supports muscle tone and body posture, without using the cerebral cortex and its pyramidal cells). These disorders can be caused by disease, or side effects of some drugs, particularly those that affect the concentration of the agent (one of many) the transmission of nerve signals - dopamine. It could be some of the medicines for the treatment of parkinsonism, and calcium channel blockers used in cardiology, and not least neuroleptics. And since these should be applied very widely, that neuroleptic syndrome may well be isolated and treated separately.

It is this side effect (or rather, a whole bunch of them), neuroleptics do not like mental patients, it is this syndrome are regarded as a punishment for what else fault, and that it is put on the form, remembering punitive psychiatry. How it is taken, and what appears?

The exact mechanism of it is not yet fully understood. It is thought that antipsychotic drugs, inter alia, to block receptors in the subcortical nuclei responsive to dopamine. This, in turn, leads to an increase in the synthesis of dopamine in the body (like this man, getting used to the smell of his cologne, use it more and more, up to wash them), and its surplus triggers a painful process.

The process itself can occur

in acute form: given medication - doubled over, canceled - it passed;
in a protracted form: given the drug for a long time, then they canceled, and the side effects last for more weeks or even a month or two;
in the chronic form, when neurolepsy does not disappear even after the abolition of neuroleptics;
in the malignant form, with fulminant development and worsening of symptoms and often fatal.

Neuroleptic syndrome is expressed in the following forms, which can either exist in isolation or combined with each other, sometimes quite bizarre:

Neuroleptic parkinsonism. The patient feels stiffness in all muscles of the body, its movements become stingy, inhibited, arms slightly bent at the elbows and tense, mincing gait, shuffling. More or less constantly shaking hands; seated knees start to shake - is barely noticeable, then, as if the patient is their specially throws up. Sometimes trembling lower jaw, which creates the feeling that the patient often-often chews (rabbit syndrome).

Dystonia. Often acute, caused by the current intake of neuroleptics, and later that occurs after several years of continuous treatment and continuing long after the abolition of neuroleptics. What are the symptoms? Remember how cramped leg muscles if they are to serve, or if during the voyage of their overworked. Now imagine that just as twisting the back muscles, causing the body to bend. Or neck, because of which the head leads the side or back throws. Or chewing muscles. More common so-called oculogyric crisis when, in addition to the tilting of the head, eyes rolled upward as oculomotor muscles cramped.

Neuroleptic akathisia. The patients themselves called restlessness. Always want to change the position, as in the one that has just finished, is already uncomfortable. But new does not bring relief. Perhaps stand, look like? A little better, but then I want to sit down. Again uncomfortable. Lie? Yes, impossible! Sitting on a chair, the patient fidgets, swings, shifts one foot to the other and vice versa, fastens with buttons and unbuttons, fingering - a second of rest.

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. It is found, fortunately, rare. Develops quickly: sharply raises the temperature to 38 Celsius and above, darkened consciousness up to coma, the patient is bound, all the body's muscles are tense, sweating heavily, and heavily breathing, heart rate often, the heart begins to malfunction rate. Mortality in neuroleptic malignant syndrome - from 10 to 20%.

Of course, this syndrome is not left unattended. They were found drugs that remove completely, or at least facilitate its display. However, and here without reservations and caution in any way. For example, the same Cyclodol. Like, everything is fine, drink a pill - and the stiffness was gone and restlessness somewhere has got to. But no, and it does have its downsides. First of all, it can be abused - for a relaxed state when the whole body is moving in the ambient air, as if in a pool - smoothly, freely, moved his fin - and soared ... And after a certain excess dosage can and does look interesting hallucinations. So hooked on this drug. Fortunately, this concealer - not the only one.

The next step was the development of new, atypical antipsychotic, in which, on a plan, neuroleptic effect was absent. There is also not everything went smoothly: neuroleptic syndrome while taking some of the new drugs and in fact is less pronounced, but not all and not always, but more and more side effects ... In short, there is work to do.

In fact, neuroleptic syndrome - not a reason to refuse treatment, especially if it gets rid of the alien invasion in a particular apartment, shielded from harmful rays and vibrations or survive worldwide conspiracy militant crypto-Zionism at the expense of an acute attack of quasi-dontcarizm philosophizing. The main thing - and the patient, and the doctor aside fanaticism and templates, and each time to decide on the selection of drugs and doses creatively.

Bread of psychiatry. Aminazin (Chlorpromazine).

The history of scientific discovery is rich in incidental findings. Only the search for the philosopher's stone as the entire distance. And phlogiston also did not disappoint. Onewill seek some for some hard-to-findum - again something to be found. Roughly the same thing happened with Aminazine (chlorpromazine).

No one planned to open the world's first antipsychotic. Not that laziness was - just did not know which way to search for. The treated to chlorpromazine, I wrote. And in 1950, trying to synthesize a new powerful antihistamine, received a white crystalline powder that is darkened, rested for a while in the light. His first tested was by anesthesiologists. No, no, this powder through a straw nose is not inhaled - just tried to give during anesthesia with basic preparation, the proportion of the potentiating effect. It is, incidentally, quite well.

And in 1952, American psychiatrist Frank Ide decided to give chlorpromazine (this is its international non-proprietary name) as a sedative for the residents of psychiatric hospitals. And then all bromine, lithium barbiturates. . And so it surprised good effect that he became actively recommend to colleagues, saying that you try it! And since 1953, a new era began in psychiatry. The new era of Neuroleptics.

From that moment, as they like to express an old professor, these mentally ill people have gradually disappeared from the hospital. Why? Yes, because before the advent of chlorpromazine many of the patients have lived there for years, until his death. Especially those who, say, the same schizophrenia flowed continuously. Who will keep a man at home? Only very few of the relatives. And here is a medicine with a powerful calming effect. And some (not very strong and not very specific, but other drugs, and that something was not!) It has action on delusions and hallucinations. That is, it is possible the time to treat patients on an outpatient basis, outside the hospital. And it was a breakthrough.

Of course, the drug is not perfect, what is his thought at first. Yes, he has a lot of side effects from neuroleptic syndrome and finishing skin photosensitivity (the entire list will not disclose, it's easier to look in the directory). Yes, the site of the injection of chlorpromazine is very hurt and sometimes inflamed. Yes, it is volatile, which makes and inhalation dose resulting personnel on duty and procedural sisters - in the treatment room. But for a long time, chlorpromazine was what is called the bread of psychiatry. And now also applied quite widely. True, in supporting roles. When exactly? You can try Phenibut.

Firstly, chlorpromazine is give when the patient should reassure psychosis, symptoms muffle brightness. Soothe - in this case does not mean calm the anxiety neurotic. Neurotic would be just cut down by chlorpromazine. No, we are talking about a completely different level of agitation. About this, for example, when in the midst of psychosis, the patient stubborn, rushes, rages and can either hit someone or himself, to hurt himself.

Secondly, Aminazin is not bad in small doses when it is necessary to reassure the excessively restless, hyperactive elderly person with dementia: I wrote that tranquilizers in this case, often give a paradoxical effect, up to the delirium.

Third, chlorpromazine used in lytic mixtures. That is, those that can quickly bring down a very tall temperature of 40. Usual "Triad" is chlorpromazine-analginum-diphenhydramine (Dimedrol). Or variations of the second and third drug. Cheap and cheerful. The list of cases is far from complete, but the main I have outlined.

Later, a few years after inventing, chlorpromazine (Aminazin) served as the basis for the creation of new antipsychotics, more precisely acting on certain groups of symptoms.

Why tongue stick to cold metal?

About the heat capacity and thermal conductivity, physical properties of iron, and that is why the language of the winter sticks to seesaw.

Language sticks winter the cold metal because it is in a normal state of his warm, but metal or ice in the winter - cold. The contact of hot and cold bodies leads to the fact that the heat starts to flow from the hot body to the cold. Accordingly, the language loses its heat, and the metal becomes. The speed of this process is determined by two parameters: the thermal capacity and thermal conductivity. Specific heat determines how much heat is needed to heat the body by one degree, and the thermal conductivity is removed from the point of heating or cooling is supplied to a point at a predetermined temperature difference. The heat capacity of language and iron per kilogram differs slightly, however, a kilogram of iron takes on the order of less volume than a kilogram of language. Therefore, due to the greater weight of the iron pillar swing it requires much more heat to warm up one degree, as opposed to the language. But the thermal conductivity of iron is several hundred times higher than that of the human body.

To learn foreign language – Cogitum, Picamilon, Noopept, Semax, Phenotropil would help.

What do we have? Iron is able to conduct heat away from the contact point with the language much faster than language - supply heat from the human body. In addition, large metal structures - poles, swing - weigh much more than a man, and able to absorb a huge amount of heat is almost warmed. And then it becomes clear that the situation is bad for the language. He is cool, and very quickly. In addition, language is always wet, and the water film will provide excellent thermal contact between the iron and the language. This layer of water freezes and the first - it is through his iron will select the language in the heat.

First, freeze the water in the surface of the tongue, and then begin to freeze the surface layer of the language of cells - and you are stuck. But the process will not stop and will continue for as long as due to the low thermal conductivity of the tongue frozen heat rejection process in the iron does not slow down so that the person supplied to the heat language will be as much as iron takes over the stood part of the language. But the language still adheres well to how this balance occurs. Stilled language will serve as an insulator, can not completely freeze the whole person - the total heat capacity, for example, an iron pillar or swing on it could well be enough.

Ice formed between the metal surface and still warm part of the language, forms a nice touch - it's an excellent glue. You can verify this by trying to clean swing from ice in winter - ice almost torn off from the metal. The language for the most part consists of water, and have stood the cells are connected with glue well (everyone knows how easy meat freezes for anything in the freezer). And if you're stuck, you need to tear off by sacrificing a part of the language that is frozen. Or you need to find a way to quickly heat the pole or swing ...

Image of new parenthood implies equal participation of the father and mother in the child's upbringing

About the paradox of parenthood, the motives for the birth of children and a variety of family models.

- Let's try to understand what is the psychology of parenthood and why psychologists are interested in this phenomenon as parenthood.

- It is an interesting question. As it often happens in science, researchers are beginning to study something, if it has a certain social demand and social interest. That is something that happens in society, there is no answer yet, and people are trying to find a solution to the problem. In this case, one of the problems was the decline in fertility. This, of course, only one of the reasons that give researchers a move to study the psychology of parenthood, but not the only one. There were a number of scientists who are already at the dawn of psychology interested in the psychology of individual aspects of parenting, such as how personality affects the child's parents, how the man himself, when it becomes the parent. In addition, there was a scientific interest in the earliest stages of development of the child's mind, which can not be seen in isolation from the psychology of the parent, and so the new sections - prenatal and perinatal psychology.

And yet, if we talk about the social roots of this field of research, then yes, it was largely due to the demographic crisis. In various European countries, economic studies have been conducted, in which all sorts of material well studied factors such as housing, income, and their relation to people's desire to have children. To carry out certain socio-economic policies to support parents, but all these measures in Europe were not very effective. And when economists are faced with the fact that their hypotheses do not explain the demographic decline, they remembered about psychologists. That is, do economists have come to the conclusion that it is a shift in values and attitudes regarding children, which occurred in people in economically developed society.

- At the end of the twentieth century there was a shift in values?

- The exact date is difficult to call, but certainly in Europe, the United States, in countries with developed economies shift of values is due to the growth of material well-being.

- When the direction of the psychology of parenthood appeared in Russia?

- A little bit later. Certain aspects of the psychology of the family, marital relations and psychology of parent-child relationship began to engage in much earlier. But they were all the approaches to the development of the psychology of parenting as an independent branch of psychology. And the first work in which sounded the word "psychology of motherhood", appeared in the 90s of the twentieth century, "the psychology of parenting" - in the early 2000s.

- Which areas have the psychology of parenthood?

- Scope of the psychology of parenthood is not uniform. It includes psychology and paternity and maternity psychology, if you divide by gender of parents. There psychology reproductive behavior - the direction, which studies the factors of desire and reluctance of parents to have children. Perinatal Psychology, which studies how the living conditions, including the behavior of the parents, but the unborn child affect his development. Psychology of midparent relations is also included in this area.

- Let's talk about how you explore the motivation and the decision to have children. As it appears, from what depends?

- This is the direction we are currently developing with colleagues from Belarus, and this research supports the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation. Our research involves the identification of psychological factors that influence decision-making on the birth of children. In Russia, such a study has not yet been carried out. While we thoroughly acquainted with foreign literature, there is a lot of data has been accumulated, and found some very interesting things. For example, it is known that the factors that influenced the birth of children up to the 80s, is now no longer so relevant. Back in the 80s were more traditional views on the role of mother and father, and believed that the ideal woman - one that definitely wants to be a mother who enjoys the birth and upbringing of children, that without this it will lose the meaning of life. His father is the breadwinner of the family - a traditional image of a man who takes a minimal part in family life and child-rearing. So the question for a decision - to have a child or not - in fact, rarely actually raised, it goes without saying, and considered as a natural scenario of life "normal" people.

- The patriarchal model of society.

- Yes, and in foreign countries in the 80-ies, this model remained in the minds of people, and many scientists have investigated it. In 90 years, this model began to evolve much, now in major Russian cities, including Moscow, we are seeing the same trend. It is not so clear is perceived role of the mother. A number of studies showing that women who, for whatever reason, whether on their own, according to the biological impossibility Do not become mothers, reach the same level of happiness, meaningfulness of life and can live a full life without having children. Previously, these issues were not raised so often and on a large scale, especially on a scientific level. That is, if you look wider processes of emancipation came to discuss the rights of women to participate in political and social life to the right to manage their biological, natural features, to be mistress of her body and life.

- This is due to rising living standards. You can trace the reason why it happened?

- The reasons are many. This is due to the changing role of women, with equalization of rights and opportunities, and in general with the expansion of the opportunities offered by the modern world to anyone. For improving quality of life – Piracetam, Picamilon, Noopept are often used.

There is a theory of the second demographic transition, according to the demographic decline which took place in two stages. At the first stage the people have not yet been provided too, and they decided that if having children is less, can be given to children born more resources for each child will be more. And so it happened, the children began to receive better nutrition, education, living standards rose. In the second stage, when people are released not only material resources for their children, but also had more time, they have discovered that you can spend your time entertaining. For example, a woman gave birth to 10 children are not, and 2-3 children, they are easier to cultivate, feed, she freed his hands. It is in their spare time can do something their own, such as partially work. And at this moment I began to occur a second demographic transition, when the value of the children began to change. The woman began to appear important interests outside the home and parenting, opens up opportunities for self-realization, there were values, competing with children. And there were the social conditions in which such life scenarios were considered acceptable.

- You said about the research that psychologists measured the level of happiness, which are the same for people with children and people without children. The so-called "paradox of parenthood." Tell us about the study.

- This is an interesting phenomenon that revealed European researchers. In 2010 it conducted a large study to compare and clarify the relations between motivation and the level of happiness of parenthood. Two hypotheses are tested, scientists, lay in the fact that, firstly, the person experiences a strong feeling of happiness when implementing the important, basic, as psychologists say, the motives. The second hypothesis was that when he reaches the goal and experiencing happiness, a state of happiness itself stimulates, motivates to that, in order to achieve something else, to want something else. This strong relationship between motivation and happiness. different goals, achievements, and found that the only parenting, having children is knocked out of the system were investigated. The desire for children is very common occurrence in society, and to achieve this goal, first makes people happy, but then has been a sharp drop in subjective well-being, life satisfaction and the weakening state of happiness. These results were confirmed in many studies. And there are two explanations for this fact.

Firstly, a lot of physical discomfort experienced parents in the early years of a child's life: lack of sleep, fatigue, concern. Often falling level of material well-being, as a woman stops working. On the third hand, strangely enough, with the advent of the child happens to spoil relations between spouses. This is subject to those couples who before birth was close to the ideal relationship - they were all so harmoniously together that the invasion of a third person brings imbalance in the system. It is also possible the destruction of the social relations, professional, as a family with children and families without children have different interests, and, sometimes, friendships deteriorate. It's a series of disadvantages which may result in the birth of a child. That is, the appearance of children often interferes with the satisfaction of basic biological and psychological needs of the parents. And one study found that a woman's all expected. As author of the study said: "A man is waiting for a perfect child, but a woman - real." Therefore, dissatisfaction in men, too much is falling, despite the fact that he is not excluded from the profession, and not so much like him, these concerns relate. Mismatch his expectations and what he gets, it is still going on.

On the other hand, the paradox would not be a paradox if it did not contain contradictions. At the same time with a reduction in feelings of well-being increases other parameters associated with a feeling of happiness - a sense of meaningfulness of life, a sense of having goals in life. There is a version that those techniques that are now used by psychologists in the study do not allow to "catch" such delicate human experiences as meaningful life, for example. According to one researcher, "maybe one minute in life, when a child runs to meet you with a smile, compensates for 100 minutes followed by cleaning, broken vases, sleepless nights and so on." That is, here play a large role, some balancing and balancing psychological factors.

- We talked about the way of parenting and how it changes in society ...

- Yes, and I can quote verbatim descriptions of those who gave people in the 80s. It was believed that the mother - a selfless woman receiving pleasure from a child's upbringing and intuitive sense of its needs. And that image in the minds of people was considered to be incompatible with female sexuality and active work. Classical woman-mother. Father is perceived as a miner, who has the desire and ability to raise a child, though the foundation of the family, but keeps a distance from it. And now there is a certain public, social groups and generally more traditional societies in which these ideas are preserved to a greater or lesser extent.

- These are the images that parents themselves have described?

- Yes, men and women. And in 80 years, mainly studied the men and women who already have children and parental experience. Now actively studied people who are just going to start them:.. Especially their motives, internal barriers, etc. For example, there is strong disagreement about the planned and actual number of children. In Europe, we interviewed thousands of people of childbearing age who have not yet had children, on the subject of how they think, how they want to give birth to children for a certain period of life. And this figure has always been overstated in comparison with the one that was given to the same people in a few years, who later gave birth. People have the idea that they would like a lot of children, and when there are real children, they are very much a parent to adjust plans for the new offspring.

If we talk about the way of new parenthood, it primarily involves the equal participation of the father and mother in the child's upbringing. This is largely due to the active professional position of women. Many studies, in fact, was an inverse relationship between the level of education of women and the number of children (that is, the more educated a woman is, the fewer children she gets). However, in order to educate people not very far, seeing in women's education and the threat of extinction of Russia dreaming again to put women at the cross stitching and cooking borsch, I would say that this relationship is not so unambiguous. It is very difficult. Other studies have well demonstrated that higher education does not affect a woman's desire to have children, a woman puts the age at which she could have a child, the age of first birth is shifted. And, of course, is less than a woman gives birth, the lower the more children she can have time to give birth. All people have an idea of the extreme age of birth, that is, after what age they already have children can not or should not. These views strongly influence reproductive behavior.

In addition, women with a higher education and not lose motivation places children simply have changed the structure of motives. At the forefront is not biological reasons such as procreation and personal-psychological: "What it means to me specifically that child?", "Why do I want a child?". And women give answers to these questions: I want to make my life and the lives of my family was a rich, diverse and happy, I have accumulated life experience, which I would like to convey to your child, want to make our relationship with the spouse more complete, I want to develop as a parent. And, in my opinion, that's fine.

- In Europe and America, people began to give birth later. But in Russia it is perceived as abnormal. There is a stereotype that a woman should have time to give birth to 30 years.

- Age shift is happening in Russia, in large cities such as Moscow. Still give birth earlier in the provinces than in Moscow. Here everything works the same shift in values - a woman wants to have time to make a career first, to strengthen its financial position, self-actualization. Not only women, but also a pair of generally makes a decision to have a child under certain conditions (not only material, but also psychological), the creation of which takes time. Thus, in the 2000s in Europe, we conducted a study "Eurobarometer" and pointed out that young Europeans one of the important factors for the institution of the child is considered stable partnerships. Optional formal marriage, stability is important in a relationship and support from her husband.

- What can you say about the limiting age of parenthood?

- The age limit Parenthood also studied in European countries and is 41.7 years for women and 47 for men. In Russia, I do not know these statistics. I think that we will age less. Hypotheses about why it may be a few. In this case I do not pretend to be a professional position, but rather my everyday consideration, but it seems that due to better medicine abroad is safer to give birth in a later age than ours. Plus features of the culture, traditions and focus on family values is also affected.

- How does the attitude of society to change the paradigm of parenthood? Intuitively, it seems that in Russia all this is not very good. There are values, models that in case of violation caused a negative reaction among the majority of society.


- One of the motives for parenthood - is a factor of matching the expectations of others. Each person has such a group of people whose opinion he values and respects. Psychologists call these groups referential - these are the people on whom we focus in life and corresponds with their opinion their actions: approve or disapprove, even if we do not ask about them directly. Very often, the motive places children is the presence of children in the families of friends, acquaintances, parents constant hints that "suitable" age. I advise different people, and quite often, young women aged 25 to 30 years say they have a very strong pressure from the mothers on this issue. Moms worry too much because the daughter is not married and has no children to a certain age. Mothers daughters and sons often, it seems that this is the main condition for a happy and good life of their children, and they are aggressively pushing them to do so happily. And this, of course, affects the decision-making of the future parents. Although it is not buying things, the birth of a child is for life, however, and such an important decision can be taken on the basis of a motive to follow other people's ideas about how to live right.

- Do not you think that getting a meaningful fashion parenthood, which can be seen on social networks, which created a huge number of groups of mothers, a large number of courses for young mothers? There are many trendy establishments where necessarily need to go with the kids. Comment on this.

- This is an interesting phenomenon, that my colleagues and I studied. My colleague Maria Danin together with his diplomnitsey analyzed a large number of online forums and perceptions of young mothers the information that there is in these forums.

If the general comment it as a phenomenon, really, it can be fashion. We can not discount the effect of infection: sling-mother, sling-father and so on. If you dig deeper, there's even this evolutionary explanation. Studies have revealed that parenthood paradox, trying to find exactly the evolutionary explanation of such facts. This has led to some interesting conclusions, which are associated with a comparison of how the children were brought up earlier, in the days when people lived dense communities, and that as it is now. Previously, the load on the child's upbringing was more evenly distributed among the members of this great community. Now, young people tend to live separately from their parents, and with the birth of their children especially hard for non-working mothers. Young mothers actually locked up in four walls and 24 hours are with a child. With the advent of the Internet, they were able to seek support and communication among the people in the communities that they understand and are in the same position. There are many online resources for these moms to communicate from the moment of conception of the child and, sometimes, up to the moment when the child goes to school. They know each other, sometimes to communicate a powerful offline and receive emotional support.

- Rather, I mean that appear in this new tone that has become fashionable to have children. In children, it is necessary to invest. The child becomes an integral part of society, the group, which is my mother. Previously, parents leave their children at home, while they themselves went. Now joint parties are becoming the norm. Why this changed tone? Maybe we are late in relation to Europe. We can say that there has been a boom of motherhood?

- Of course, all too often in Russia comes from abroad. Those sling-mother not our invention. Just write off all the fashion - it's superficial. It has a deeper explanation. I think that there is a pendulum effect triggered. In the 50-60-ies of the kindergarten gave children after 1.5-2 months, as the woman did not rely maternity care. Perhaps grown young parents who want to give the children what they did not have themselves. This is one of the possible options.

- Are psychologists study these social groups? Whether it is the subject of research?

- I do not know about these studies. Maybe we will hear today some psychologists will study. A serious scientific literature I have not seen on this subject.

- Is it possible to trace the stages of development of children's motivation for the institution?

- Since we are talking about what parenting awareness is growing, then come to the fore social and personal motives. This point is very interesting and is celebrated not only in time (as soon as it was and as it is now), this is noted in the different groups of people. How are decisions made? What motives come to the fore? With growing prosperity, when it does not have to worry about survival, to the fore meaningful and conscious psychological motives, parenthood becomes a matter of choice and independent decision-making, rather than following the call of nature or social stereotypes.

However, one should not think that all entirely mature and responsible among these motives. There are, for example, the motives of usefulness in children's institution. This utilitarian motives, motives advantage of the child, as though it may sound rude. Sometimes people give birth to a child for a particular purpose. To have someone to file a glass of water, for example. That there was support and help in old age. To transfer the inheritance in their own hands. There have been studies and such motives, and they showed that in the age of the children of parents receive most financial support, and by daughters - emotional. There was also a study which compared families with different number of children and staff. Trying to find the optimal combination of the number of children and came to the conclusion that a girl and a boy - this is indeed optimal in relation to the support received by the parents in their old age. The second girl and second boy in a family of three children in this sense does not play a big role. That is calculated, if approached pragmatically, the optimal amount and composition of the children in terms of parental utilitarian motives.

- What happens to the image of parenthood in the future?

- It is difficult to say for sure. Most likely, if the company will develop in a liberal way, the tendency will be to increase the diversity, if not ideologically imposed a certain model of motherhood, fatherhood, parenthood, family. If you give some freedom, manifest a very different model of fatherhood and motherhood. For example, now subject to childfree ideas: a man and a woman, which create a family, but deliberately refuse to be parents, so decide for life. It is now at the level of public opinion is not encouraged, even often condemned. Those who do not understand this position, think: many people pay a lot of money in order to give birth to children, and someone takes and rejects this possibility voluntarily, it's against nature! But this is also the model of parenthood, more precisely, not parenthood, and she also has a right to exist. If you think about it, whether happiness is a lot of child birth and life with people who do not want children? Another model of parenthood - single parents. There is a stamp "single parent", and is a negative connotation behind it. A single parent is a pity, children are seen as growing in incomplete families. Although very often the child that grows with the happy, but single parents are much more comfortable can be developed in such a family, than if he grew up with Mom and Dad, who are constantly in conflict and scandals. Man as a creature not only social but also biological got a lot of biological behavior of programs. In the evolution of somebody got behavioral model of sustainable partnership, birth and education of many children, she can eat experience parental family, and someone went to another program, and someone - a negative example of their parents, and all this will affect the model Parenthood a particular person. We are all very different, and that's fine and good. There are, for example, people with a particular pattern of behavior, which, having accumulated enough resources, they want someone to pass them, but they do so at a fairly late stage of his life, having lived most of it without my family. This person may adopt a child into adulthood and to invest in it all my love, soul and experience. It is also an option of parenthood. In our country it is still painful is the issue of same-sex parenting, although scientists and simply educated people has long been clear that this can not shy away from that family are there, and have the right to be on a par with the rest. I think if we summarize all the above, then the future of parenting models can be described by several major words: awareness, responsibility and diversity.

Meet the most important molecule - DNA

About DNA molecules of the device, its physical properties and repaired systems.

It looks like a corkscrew ...

Plan how to get every one of us, ready at a moment when the sex cells of our parents, moms and dads, are merged into one, called a zygote or fertilized egg. Plan concluded in the nucleus of a single cell, in its molecule DNA, and it means a lot: and what will be the color of our eyes and hair, and how high will increase, and what form the nose, and how thin - ear for music and many many others. Of course, our future depends not only on DNA, but simply from the vicissitudes of fate. But very, very much in our fate is determined by the qualities laid down from birth, our genes, t. E. The sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules. (Cyanocobalamin injection is essential for DNA making.)

DNA doubles with each cell division, so that each cell carries information about the structure of the whole organism. It is as if kept miniature plan of the building in every brick building. That would be the architects for a long time so did! Then the restorers would not have to rack their brains, say over how the look once the Pergamon Altar, even if it remained a single stone of it.

The fact that the specialized cells of the whole organism actually knows what's inside the entire body, was first demonstrated in the late 1950s, the British biologist John Gurdon. He took the cell nucleus of an adult frog and using the finest microsurgical technique, transplanted it into the frog eggs, which a custom kernel have been killed by ultraviolet irradiation. From hybrid eggs grew normal tadpole or frog - is absolutely identical to the one whose cell nucleus was taken. Nature itself sometimes creates such twins. It turns out, when you do not stay together, and diverge after the first division of the zygote daughter cells and is obtained from each organism. So are born monozygotic,or identical, twins. The twins are exactly the same DNA, so they are similar. At the end of the last century, the British zoologists managed to apply the technique GΈrdona mammals: the cloning era began. First method of cloning has been successfully obtained a sheep named Dolly, which became a real celebrity. DNA to Dolly was taken in the form of the cell nucleus, seized from the udder of some sheep, which did not live up to the birth of his twin. This core has been transplanted into an egg extracted from the other sheep, from which the (egg) its nucleus has been removed. Then a hybrid cell carrying a foreign nucleus put back where it removed. As a result, and Dolly was born, a complete copy of the sheep, which supplied DNA. Dolly lived six years and died. Meanwhile clones were obtained by many other animals, and from time to time the news flies around the world on human cloning. But so far none of these posts (human cloning) has not been confirmed, and the messages came from the obvious quacks.

Either way, the success of the experiments in cloning leaves no doubt that the DNA of the nucleus is fully determines who will in the course of development of an organism from a single cell.

How it is arranged DNA molecule, this queen of a living cell? It is not a simple rope ladder, as you might think, looking at the picture. This ladder is curled into the right spiral. It resembles a corkscrew, but a double corkscrew; They are rare, but occur. Each of the strands of DNA forms a right helix, a hair's breadth as a spin. Nitrogenous bases of four types, in which the sequence and the genetic information is contained, form a sort of filling this corkscrew cable. On the surface of the cable is the sugar-phosphate backbone of the polymer chains that make up DNA.

The monomeric units of which DNA is built, it is very similar to the monomeric units of RNA, the chemical structure of which is shown in Fig. 6. We will not be so again to draw all four nucleotides, just show what it looks like T nucleotide, which is the most different from its counterpart RNKovogo - W. Note that the top ring is called a nitrogenous base, a five-membered ring - sugar and a phosphate group on the left is .

What are the main dimensions of the DNA? Double helix diameter 2 nm, the distance between adjacent base pairs along the helix - 0.34 nm. Overall turnover of the double helix makes 10 pairs. But the length? The length depends on the DNA of any organism belongs. DNA is the simplest viruses contain only a few thousand units of bacteria - a few million, and higher - billions. (Vitamin B12 injection is necessary for DNA synthesis).

If the build up in one line all DNA enclosed in only one human cell, we get the thread length of about 2 m. Therefore, the length of the filament in a billion times larger than its thickness. To better imagine what this means, imagine if the DNA is actually twice as thick as in Fig. 8 -. About 4 cm Such DNA taken from a human whole cells could encircle the globe at the equator. At this scale, the cell nucleus is the size of the stadium, and the person - it is the globe.

It is clear that one of the very serious problems in multicellular organisms, especially where very long DNA molecule, the molecule is laying it to fit into the cell nucleus. Lay, then it should be so that the DNA was available for the entire length of the proteins, such as RNA polymerase, reading the desired genes. Another problem - the replication of such long molecules. In fact, after the DNA double the two complementary strands, which were originally repeatedly twisted relative to one another, must be diluted. This means that the molecule need to scroll around its axis million times before the end replication. It follows that the questions generated by the work of Watson and Crick, is not limited to the problem of the genetic code, and related things.

These questions gave rise to doubts. Did Watson-Crick model is correct? How reliable is the foundation upon which all the data of molecular biology? Watson-Crick model was so concrete, so detailed that downright teasing their vulnerability. It was enough to find at least one clear fact, contrary to her that the double helix was dropped from the pedestal. It was a challenge for physicists, and they set to work.

If each DNA molecule actually consists of two polymer chains, some argued, and these chains are linked together by weak non-covalent forces, they must disperse solution by heating DNA, it is possible to accurately fix the experiment. If nitrogenous bases in DNA actually form one another hydrogen bonds, others reasoned, it can be checked by measuring the DNA spectra in the infrared region or exploring the exchange rate of the ordinary (light) hydrogen on a heavy (deuterium). If the inside of the double helix is indeed hidden away nitrogenous bases, others argued, it is possible to determine whether the act on DNA are substances that are capable of reacting only with these, to hide groups. These and many other experiments were carried out. By the end of the 1950s it became clear - the model has withstood the first test. Attempts to refute it have failed one after another.

It is like a window pane

Physicists do the study of DNA, not only because they understood the importance of checking all the details of its structure. The DNA molecule is attracted their attention in and of itself.
DNA looks like a solid body. bases pairs are stacked therein in a crystal. But this linear crystal, like a one-dimensional - each base pair has only two neighbors. DNA crystal - aperiodic, as a sequence of pairs of irregular bases as irregular sequence of letters in a meaningful text books. However, like the letters in the printed font base pairs A and D T • D • have the same dimensions both in width and in height.

Of course, an entirely new type of crystal, one-dimensional crystal of DNA, it is terrible intrigued physicists. Is he a semiconductor? And maybe superconductor, and even at room temperature? DNA was subjected to the next survey. No, it is not a semiconductor, much less is not a superconductor. She was an ordinary insulator, such as window glass. Yes and it is transparent like glass. The aqueous DNA solution (and it dissolves in water very well) a clear liquid. This similarity does not end with the glass. Ordinary glass, including a window transparent to visible light and very strongly absorb ultraviolet rays. DNA also absorb in this region of the spectrum. However, unlike glass, which is not harmful UV rays, the DNA is very sensitive to them. (Use Cyanocobalamin to feel good).

Ultraviolet rays are so harmful to the DNA molecules that the cell has developed during the evolution of a special repaired system that heals the damage caused by these rays. What kind of damage?

When a photon of ultraviolet radiation (photons) hits the DNA, it transfers its energy to a nitrogenous base. The base is in an excited state. Further events can unfold in different ways. If the photon is absorbed purine (adenine or guanine), nothing much will happen - the energy absorbed quickly turn into heat (as it happens in the window), and the DNA will remain the same as it was. Another thing, if the photon is absorbed by a pyrimidine (thymine or cytosine), and not by anyone, but one that is adjacent to the circuit with another pyrimidine. In this case, the absorbed energy is not yet time to turn into heat as two adjacent pyrimidine react chemically. This process is particularly effective when the two are adjacent thymine. The result - a new chemical compound, called thymine photodimers.

The structure of the dimer is rather unusual. In fact, carbon is generally tetrahedral or when it bonds with neighboring atoms are of tetrahedral vertices in its center, or a triangle, when the communication lie in one plane and directed from the center to the vertices of a regular triangle. But photodimers two bonds each carbon atom participating in the clutch thymine form a right angle! And all four carbon atoms form a square (it is called cyclobutane).

So, in the DNA damage occurred - instead of two thymine formed a completely new chemical compound, which reached the enzymes that work on DNA, stop. They know only four letters: A, T, G and C, and then some new TàT icon. They do not know it. If this does not rectify the blot is not clear from the text, the enzymes can neither be removed from the DNA copy or consider information from it (to synthesize RNA). The entire life of a cell will stop and she will die.

Ultraviolet rays are such a serious threat to the DNA molecules in the course of evolution has developed a special cell to deal with DNA damage caused by this radiation. Enzymes of the repaired systems come to the rescue. First, the enzyme UV endonuclease recognizes thymine dimers and tears in this place the sugar chain. Next exonuclease enzyme extends arising gap. In one of the strands of DNA, where thymine dimers formed, it turns out a huge gap - several thousand nucleotides. In this case not only are remote thymine dimers, but also plenty of normal nucleotides, as they say, just in case. But it does not matter - the other, complementary strand remains intact, and on it a special enzyme, DNA polymerase I, builds on the second strand, creating a normal double helix identical to the original, undamaged DNA.

So, it turns out, what the meaning of double-stranded DNA! It is necessary not only to create two identical copies of the genetic material, but also to information contained in the DNA can be saved from damage. If there was a single-stranded, then it would be impossible to fix the DNA duplication between cycles.

Repaired systems exist in all cells, from the simplest to man. This is not surprising - life began under the sun. It may seem strange that the repaired system is active even in those cells which are never experience the action of solar radiation - for example, intestinal cells. An ingenious explanation offered GM Barenboim. He suggested that the DNA is protected from the Cerenkov radiation, which occurs in the cells of the decay of natural radioactive elements impurities.

If the mutation is repaired the system fails - it's a disaster. Sometimes children are born with a defect called xeroderma pigmentozum. They are absolutely can not be the light - their skin covered with sores, which gradually turn into malignant tumors. These children can not be saved, even carefully protecting them from the sun. Generally, direct experiments on animals showed that thymine dimers can cause cancer.

So, to sunbathe - it really is not an innocent activity. Of course, we can not deny myself this pleasure, but do not overload the repaired system. In addition, the repair - not completely harmless thing. It is believed that the enzymes of the system are repaired, especially DNA polymerase I, tend to make mistakes, so that repair can lead to mutations. A somatic mutation (ie. E. Occurring in the cells of the body no pun intended) are also considered as an important factor leading to malignant tissue degeneration.

That's how much hassle from what DNA is sensitive to ultraviolet rays. But these rays hardly reach the earth's surface, most of them are absorbed by the atmosphere. So whether regret that DNA transparent as window glass in relation to the visible spectrum?

It melts but not like ice

And yet those who were waiting on the DNA molecules of unusual physical properties, were rewarded. Dimensionality and aperiodicity DNA chip is fully manifested in its melting. But if the crystalline state of the DNA - it is clear that this, how to submit it to the transition to a liquid? In what may become one-dimensional crystal of DNA during melting? To understand this, let us recall why the ice is melting.

Ice is a crystal built of H2O molecules. It is quite a strict order in which the water molecules are bonded to each other the greatest possible number of so-called hydrogen bonds (H-bonds): HO-H ... OH2. These are the H-bonds, which are formed in complementary base pairs A • T • C and D. Some of these bonds are broken, others are deformed when passing water in liquid state. What causes the water to be liquid at a temperature above zero Celsius? Losing part of the links by loosening the other, the water molecules acquire the ability to move more freely (move and rotate), it becomes very advantageous with increasing temperature. With even greater heating of the water molecule for complete freedom sacrificed last communication with each other - there is a transition from a liquid to a gaseous state. This is a general trend. With increasing temperature of the substance are willing to sacrifice the binding energy between molecules in order to increase the entropy.

All this is fully applicable to DNA - the existence of a rise in temperature of the double helix becomes uneconomical. Intermolecular bonds, H-bond within base pairs and the so-called stacking interactions between adjacent pairs along the chain holding the two complementary strands are near each other, torn, and one of the double-stranded molecules of the two single-stranded chain is formed. Entropy (m. E. In the sense of obtaining greater freedom) is beneficial because, without being bound to a complementary partner, each chain feels much freer can take much more space in various configurations.

DNA strand break themselves simply heating impossible - the bonds joining the nucleotides in the chain are so strong that they can be destroyed either a strong acid or nuclease enzymes cut.

Despite the analogy, the DNA melting fundamentally different from the melting ice. The difference is that DNA melting occurs over a wide temperature range; this interval is equal to a few degrees, and the ice melting occurs strictly at one point on the temperature scale. This so-called phase transition. In this transition phase abruptly changes the state of matter - a solid it becomes a liquid, a liquid - gas.

Every day we are faced with a phase transition when the boil kettle. In the process of boiling water-steam system is at the point of phase transition - the kettle temperature iota does not exceed 100 ° C until all the water boils away. The same will happen when heat ice or snow. The temperature rises to 0 ° C, then the growth will stop until all the ice has melted completely, and then the temperature will go up again. Unlike phase systems, in DNA the temperature rises continuously, and with it an increase in new areas of the helical molecules pass into the molten state. I wonder what the difference is - a direct consequence of one-dimensionality of the DNA chip. Realize that this behavior may matter, physicists have begun even before the Second World War, when not thinking about DNA or the real one-dimensional crystals. Just could not manage to build a complete theory of phase transitions in these three-dimensional crystals (it happened only much later - in the 1970s), and the idea that it might be possible to do it at least for one-dimensional or two-dimensional crystal.

But the melting of the DNA - is not just a unique natural phenomenon. It is a process that is constantly happening in the cell. In fact, the doubling and DNA, and in reading information from its complementary chain should be routed to each of them (for replication), or one of them (in the case of transcription) began DNA synthesis or RNA chains. Cyanocobalamin injection - helps in DNA making.

How divorced chain? What plays the role of iron that can melt a region of DNA? This special role is played by enzymes, in particular RNA polymerase. The enzyme binds tightly to DNA and unwinds it, but not at any site of the molecule, and a specific nucleotide sequence, a promoter located between the genes. Once the RNA polymerase linked to a promoter and melt it (opens about ten nucleotides), it begins to move along the gene, untwining on its way all new sites and conducting synthesis of mRNA molecules. Those portions of the gene from which the polymerase is "slid" slam shut again, and the synthesized RNA molecule is suspended in the solution. To it swims up the ribosome and protein synthesis begins by the laws of the genetic code.

Olympic Games

Historian Dr. Doping tells about Zeus, cult of sports in ancient Greece and the revival of the Olympic Games.

According to ancient Greek writers, the first Olympic Games were built in 776 BC. The competitions were part of a religious festival, dedicated to the god Zeus. Initially they were local in nature and conducted in Elis, a region in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese, where the current Olympia. Later, the game spread to the entire Peloponnese peninsula, and then began pan-Greek. It is believed that a greater role in the development of the Olympic Games played Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus. It should be noted that Olympia often confused with Mount Olympus, located on the border of Greece and Macedonia, where, according to legend, lived Zeus and the other Olympian gods. Of course, the Olympic Games in Mount Olympus never carried out.

The Olympic Games were part of a cycle pan-Greek competitions. Olympic (with an emphasis on sports disciplines) and the Pythian (with an emphasis on music and poetry competitions) held every four years, the Isthmian (near Corinth) and the Nemean (in the northeast Peloponnese) - once every two years. The winner in all competitions cycle called periodonic and enjoyed the highest esteem and respect.

From the IV century BC, the Greeks began to use the Olympic Games for the dating of events, such as the 3rd year of the 101st Olympiad.

How the Olympic Games held

Olympic Games were a mixture of sport and musical and poetic competitions, religious festival and trade fair. They gathered about 40-60 people from different policies - a huge amount for Greek standards. There traded, read poetry, drinking, eating. On the game is open to all sectors of the population of ancient Greece. But competing in the games, of course, only the citizens of the Greek policies. In a later (Hellenistic and Roman) time in the competition involved not only ethnic Greeks, and everyone who identified himself with Greek culture, spoke the Greek language. The Greeks praised corporeal beauty, so sports have played an important role in ancient Greece. Each polis was a gymnasium - a special place where young men preparing for sports games. There were trained Ephebians - young men of military age.

Despite the fact that the winner of the first game became a cook from Elis, most of the winners in the first century of the existence of the Olympics were aristocrats, aristocrats because it has free time and money and could afford expensive training. In addition, each Olympian had to sit on a special diet involves consuming large quantities of meat. For the Greeks, the meat - it is rather a luxury: it ate in the sacrifices, the meat was not included in the daily diet. Contrary to popular belief, the Greek athletes, as a rule, were professionals. Now some professional sportsmen use – Meldonium for heart protection, Clenbuterol for fat loss.

Judges-Elis became the most respectable inhabitants of Elis. Appeal were possible, but usually not considered.

About outrages fans at the ancient Olympic Games is not known. Outrages occurred later in the Roman Empire and Byzantium. For example, in the VI century AD the uprising passed the famous "Nike" in Constantinople, when the blue and green party supporters staged nearly overthrow the emperor. individual athletes, sports team did not participate in the Olympic Games. Therefore, the concept of team spirit, which sing today, did not exist in ancient Greece. The audience rooting for his relative, compatriot, and the reasons for fighting and atrocities were not. In addition, it is forbidden to bring the wine to the stadium. The display of significant fines for those who carried with him drink the wall of the stadium at Delphi preserved. So the Greeks to ensure order during the competition.

Olympic Games originally lasted one day, but later expanded to five days. The final ritual of the festival were religious sacrifices to Zeus. These sacrifices were called hecatomb. The Greeks brought to the altar of one hundred bulls, burning their entrails and ate meat. It was a massive feast with lots of meat and wine.

Sports Disciplines

The first sport discipline was running at different distances: one stage, two stage, long runs from 7 to 24 stadia and so on. Stages - is the Greek measure of length. The fact that the Olympic Games were devoted not only to Zeus, but his son Hercules, famous for its strength and high growth. According to the myths, its growth was about 192 meters. This raises the first sport discipline – 200 meters. She had a ritual character: the athlete had to run to the temple of Zeus, and kindle the fire ritual. They fled with torches or without them, we do not know.

The main competitions Greeks also include boxing, Pankration (fighting without rules), jumping with dumbbells, pentathlon (running, wrestling, long jump, discus and javelin); We enjoyed the highest prestige of the equestrian events (chariot-four, chariot-racing and a deuce).

Interestingly, the swimming was not included in the list of sports among the Greeks, although all the Greeks know how to swim. Rather, for them, it was so natural that no point is to make swimming a separate sport, was not.

Olympic glory

On Pan-Greek Olympics were not material rewards. Each winner of the Olympic Games (Olimpionik) received a wreath of olive tree and universal esteem. Above olimpionic were only those athletes who have won all four games Pan-Greek: Olympic, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian. Such athletes called periodonic.

The winner of the Olympic Games enjoyed the highest prestige. Returning to his hometown, he could take a lifetime honorary positions and eat free special public institutions - pritaneyah. If olimpionic being captured during the war, the enemies could not execute him and had to let go, in order not to incur the wrath of the gods. The winner of the game was the same: no second, third places did not exist, there was no consolation prizes in Greece. Other participants of the games were covered with shame. For those who could not escape the shame and secretly fled he imposed a large fine.

Often athletes died during the Olympic Games. There were cases when the winners were declared dead, especially in boxing and pancratium. If an athlete died in the last battle, and the enemy has violated the rules, getting any victory of the deceased athlete.

Women's participation in the Olympic Games

As part of the Greek city-states, especially in the Dorian, in sports can participate unmarried girls. Such contests were dedicated to the goddess Hera, Zeus's wife, and had a goal to prepare girls for marriage and procreation. They were held in Olympia itself before the Olympic Games. However, in themselves the Olympic Games women could not participate because of the principle of the Olympic nakedness. Initially, the athletes competed in loincloths, but then (there are different points of view, the historian Thucydides wrote that long before his time, that is, in the VI century BC) began to compete naked.

There was one interesting exception: horse racing chariot, which was proclaimed the winner is not the driver but the owner of the teams. Owners of harnesses could be a woman, and therefore, they could be the winners of the Olympic Games.

Modern Olympic Games

In 393, the ancient Olympic Games were held for the last time. The Byzantine emperor Theodosius banned the game as part of pagan culture. After that Olympia is in decline. In the VI century, there were two earthquakes occur, the channel of the river Alpheus changing and Elis entered the sand. Since then, the Olympic Games have been forgotten for many centuries.

Ideas about the revival of the Olympic Games originated in the XIX century, after Greece gained its independence. Since then start in Olympia major archaeological sites, which resulted in the sports facilities and the temple were found. While in Europe it was in fashion romantic-idealistic conception of antiquity, so the desire to revive the Olympic Games rather quickly spread throughout Europe. In Greece, it was actively engaged philanthropist Evangelis Zappas. It was he who organized the Olympic Games in Athens in 1870. Despite the fact that the games were successful, they were of a local nature and go unnoticed because of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).

The modern Olympic Games were revived by a French philanthropist Pierre de Coubertin in the late XIX century. According to Coubertin, it is a weak physical condition of the French soldiers was one of the reasons for the defeat of the French in the war of 1870-1871. He sought to change this situation by improving the physical culture of citizens. Another object of Coubertin was the frustration of aggressive human instincts through competition. According to his plan, "the youth of the world" had to take on in sports, and not on the battlefields.

The Congress, held in Paris, Coubertin presented his idea to the general public, and it was decided that the first modern Olympic Games to be held in 1896 in Athens. For the organization of games based International Olympic Committee, which became the general secretary himself, Pierre de Coubertin.

Common Misconceptions

During the Olympic Games in Greece it was to attack the sacred truce. But this rule is often violated. In 420 BC, Sparta was fined for the invasion of his troops in Elis just in time for the Olympics. In 364 BC the Arcadians were trying to capture the Olympia, to receive income from the games, and fighting took place on the sacred territory of the right during the next Olympic Games.

Many modern Olympic symbols and rituals do not have to antiquity irrelevant. For example, the five Olympic rings invented de Coubertin in 1913 (five Olympics were held at that time). The ceremony of lighting the Olympic flame has been thought up by the organizers of the Olympics in Berlin in 1936, prone to the torchlight procession, and the first Olympic torches were made at the Krupp factories.