What is the emotional trauma?

How people react to stressful situations

Trauma, or as they say psychologists, trauma, is a condition that occurs due to severe extreme stress events. Such an event necessarily implies a threat to life or physical integrity of both the individual and other people, such as his relatives. In ordinary consciousness by trauma often understand the household negative events: resentment, conflict, abuse, or mental breakdowns. Often, clients and therapists even the experts in this field correctly define it.

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Trauma carries a certain risk of mental disorders. It is known that 20% of people who have been subjected to extreme events often begin to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder. This notional figure is usually characteristic of the people who passed the war. Depending on to which people have undergone traumatic event, this percentage could vary. In trauma research it is now the most important and pressing question - why some people, having experienced some severe stress, can recover quickly, while others develop post-traumatic stress disorder.

There are two types of traumatic stressors, that is, the factors that cause stress. The first type - is the extreme single events. As an example, car accidents, robbery, assault, sexual assault, which is non-recurring in nature. The impact of such stressors result in a clinical variant to the classic PTSD, with its main symptoms. These include the invasion of traumatic experiences, dreams, intrusive thoughts, avoidance of traumatic experience in which a person tries to eliminate everything that is mindful of the injury, and the result is fenced off from life as a whole. It is also a physiological excitement: reactivity, increased response to the impact of the environment. Such excitation is characterized by nervousness and insomnia.

The second type of traumatic situations - is repetitive traumatic impacts. As an example, acts of war, living on the territory of military action, repeated cases of sexual violence in the family. It is a chronic trauma, it is transferred to a person much heavier, because apart from the traumatic effects of a person is experiencing more and repetition, he lives in constant tension. It suffers from the personality, system of its outlook for the world becomes a hostile person. Such repeated traumatic exposure affects the self-esteem, self-esteem, a person perceives himself as weak and unable to somehow interact with the outside world, and it ultimately leads to the development of personality disorders.

Behavioral types of human in Stress Situation

Psychologist Dr. Doping tells about the stress response, the people of A-type and temperament with cardiac diseases due. In what situations are manifested psychological types of the human? Is it possible to change the type of human behavior? And what types of behaviors identified American cardiologists Friedman and Rosenman?

The concepts of psychological and behavioral type of person is very close; in turn, they are close to the concept of "temperament." This is some characteristics of a person or animal personality, which do not change over time.

There are active and passive style of reactions to stress. I do not like this definition because the word "active" and "passive" are in Russian, a clear evaluative. It is preferable to call these behavioral types A and B, that did in his time, American cardiologists Friedman and Rosenman. The first work appeared long ago - in 1958, but that it is no less interesting. Behavioral type A is an ambitious, aggressive. The argument for it is important not to establish the truth and not insist on his point of view, but to win. To do this, it can completely change their views. Behavioral Type B is the complete opposite. These are people who are not prone to conflicts. To cope with stress- buy Phenibut, Afobazol, Phenazepam and Selank.

We can do an experiment on animals. Take one of the young rats and enclose them to another with opposite behavioral type. When the young grow up, they reproduce the behavioral type of their parents.

FAQ: Post Neolithic food

5 facts about the formation of the culture of food and its impact on human development

Food and meal occupy a special place in the culture of almost all ages and nations. We can not explain it only physiological needs. Myths are full of stories about the appearance of proper human food and that man is man, it is partaking to a certain type of food. Below - a few stories associated with the time when the tradition was formed human nutrition.

• 1.Everyone knows the term "Neolithic revolution", although now it is not as popular as, say, 50 years ago - modern ideas about why people suddenly began to abandon the traditional way of life-gatherer-fisher hunter, quite different from the original Gordon Childe concept , the author of the term and the very concept of the Neolithic revolution. He believed that it was the economic base, but we understand that they could not become a source neolitization processes: the first stages of development of agriculture, livestock require enormous effort, while giving an unstable result. Paleoanthropological evidence indicates that Early Neolithic community that is already gone over to agriculture and livestock, had much lower rates of life expectancy, health status, etc., than their contemporaries, preserved traditional way of hunter-gatherers. So the logic in the assumption that there is no economic grounds.
  
  Perhaps we are dealing with a complex set of religious ideas and aspirations of the person to whom then joined rationality. Nevertheless man surrounds himself with a new world: home, homes, house plants and animals - that is, forms the built environment. Thus, if talk about the Neolithic revolution, it was a creation of the built environment, and not just jump to a particular type of food.
• 2.We have a well-established term "early farmers." It was assumed that they are bred mainly cereals - wheat and barley - and ate them. But, as shown by studies of the isotopic composition of bone tissue, it is not so. Early landowners, that is, specializing in agriculture, there was: livestock and agriculture develop comprehensively. Of course, the crops have become an integral part of the human diet, but only part of it, because the harvest is not guaranteed, and at that time was short. However, the interpretation of surprising properties of grain yield in the tens or hundreds of times more yield than was sown, that is to revive dying lies at the basis of many cults, leaving the roots in the deep antiquity of preliterate.
• 3.The transition to a new food is associated with physiological rearrangements. Genetics modern populations allows us to see those microevolution processes that led to the consolidation and increase in the frequency of recurrence of certain lines, - processes that bring benefits. In this respect, it is best studied in the process of adjusting to the dairy food - the first man among the animals began to consume milk, infant food, throughout life. In fact, it is the food of infants and young children; man to successfully digest milk, it should keep the baby enzymes. Therefore, we can assume a certain direction of microevolution process in those populations where adults frequent this enzyme - in the north and north-west of Europe, in the Baltic region.
• This does not mean that in other areas milk was not included in the diet, but here it was probably vital. After all, the northern areas - it is not enough ultraviolet radiation as a result - rickets, a terrible disease: changes in the skeleton of a woman after suffering rickets in childhood is likely to lead to the fact that the offspring will be born with complications, or not at all. So that the population is protected from rickets, will be much more successful in microevolutionary respect (that is selectively important trait can be judged from the experience of European settlement on the territory of Greenland). The gene that allows a person to produce lactase into adulthood, confirms the importance of selective type of food for the north-western nations of antiquity. And he definitely originated in Europe, possibly in the Paleolithic period - 10-12 thousand years ago - or so later, here opinions diverge geneticists. To imrpove brain and cognitive function – buy Cogitum, Piracetam, Cyanocobalamin injection, Semax and Phenotropil.
• 4.Adapting to human food have different effects on the genetics and physiology. There are diseases associated with intolerance to certain grain proteins - such as celiac disease, known to the ancient Greeks; it was described in classical times, although the etiology was not completely clear. So far, not exactly determined which genes cause the intolerance. But it is clear that the complex of traits that determine the possibility of acceptance or rejection of gluten could not be selective significance because the grain - the basis, if not the Neolithic, the Late Neolithic "food package". Also, there may be some inheritance linked genes: for example, a very interesting feature as favism - a disease that does not allow a person to perceive the beans, even their pollen, but it protects against malaria, which is important for the southern regions. Here we are dealing with genetic and physiological characteristics of the complex.
• 5.Formation of a new type of power generates and economic features of them. In the era of early civilizations and later appeared societies that specialize in agriculture, food consumed, in fact, almost vegetarian. But initially man - carnivore, omnivore. The larger plants, especially cereals, it uses, the more he needs substance which it obtains in this diet. For example, it needs salt - sodium chloride it spends to maintain homeostasis and blood, and digestion. And then - problem: where the seed brings a good harvest, will never be the salt; where there is salt, there will be a high yield. In this - the cause of the formation of the universal trade relations of the time: where are sowing, no salt. These trade relations determine the specialization: the owners of salt lakes or salt deposits are in pole position. Thus, the new warehouse supply forms and settlement structure, the structure of economic relations. This happens automatically, not intentionally - and this principle is important for the whole theme.

Co-evolution of Language and toolmaking of human ancestors

The appearance of language, holo-phrases and labor training

On the website of the journal Nature Communications, published an article describing the experiments on the effect of the presence of the language on the efficiency of transmission of information on the establishment of guns.

What happened

An international team of scientists conducted an interesting evolutionary experiment tested how can be transmitted from generation to generation tools manufacturing technology. As an example, we were taken the most primitive tools - Olduvai, and make them easy to learn and can be fast enough. Gathering in Norfolk two tons of flint and taking a few trained volunteers, the experimenters started "evolution" of the chain: a person already knows how to make tools, for five minutes trained novice, he mastered, if not ability, or at least knowledge, teach the next, and so Further.

Methods of teaching in different chains were different:

1. Reverse engineering (reverse engineering) - a beginner looking at ready-made guns, trying to figure out how they are made, and do the same;

2. Imitation - rookie watched as craftsman making guns and tried to do the same;

3. "Basic" training - much the same way, as do modern chimpanzees crack nuts teaching young: you can look at the value of the student, to make their actions more slowly, so that he could observe everything necessary, change the position of the stone in his hands - but you can not show the gestures and, of course, to speak;

4. sign training - craftsman can show newcomer gestures, where and how to hit, etc .;

5. Verbal Learning - craftsman making tools, can say that it does, and the newcomer is allowed to ask any questions.

Of course, those who have learned to make tools just five minutes, get worse, so the end of the chain of rolling down to the level achievable with reverse engineering. But those "traditions", who used language skill was lost slowly and tools they do best. From this experiment, the authors conclude that the making of tools set the new direction sampling: of those who make tools was vital to have survived those who passed on their skills in using communication system. Accordingly, the more complex tools were, the more developed should be the communications system - and this is what eventually led to the emergence of human language. To improve language ability – buy Cogitum, Cortexin, Piracetam, Semax and Phenotropil.

Prehistory

The idea to judge the presence of the language of our fossil ancestors for their guns is not new. According to some researchers, for example, an archaeologist Iain Davidson, this is perhaps the only thing that can shed light on the origins of language. Once there was even a theory that primitive man to make tools, muttering to himself something like "boom!", "Bang!" - And it is from these cries have evolved eventually human words. Some authors believe that the weapons - evidence that the fossils are made of people were able to think of symbols, and therefore speak the language. How to write the English archaeologist Gordon Childe, "hand ax as a weapon has standardized itself fossil conception". Tool use was associated with the development of the dominance of the right hand, which makes guns - that's why, is believed to be the main language is for, as well as for the right hand, the left hemisphere. And maybe there was a language it is then to train fellow manufacture of guns, and then found a variety of other functions? This opinion also exists.

Prospects

To study the evolution, modeling it on the chains of the subjects, in recent years has become a tradition. Linguists study in such a way as may arise and develop language, folklore show students how to change the text of the transmission by word of mouth. Archaeologists experimenters do not remain on the sidelines. The only thing not very clear how the modern man - with their knowledge, skills and cognitive habits - can serve as an adequate model of man of another type, for example, Homo habilis, the manufacturer Olduvai guns, but on the other hand, other people we now have on the planet is not .

The author discusses the study are based on the implicit belief that language - is absolutely integral thing that either there or not. Therefore, as a "verbal learning" have featured detailed phrases built according to the rules of modern syntax, for example, are as follows:

"So you're always trying to hit over the hump?"

"It seems that this part too in favor, and here - flawed, try it like this."

"Find the edge, whether you have an edge with a black thing on the other side?"

"Yadrische can rely on his left leg." (Yadrische, ang flint core -. Splinter of stone, a blank for the production of stone tools.)

All other training options, studied in this experiment, do not use the language in any way - the people or show gestures, or just teach others by direct action, like modern chimpanzees. Researchers have quite naturally conclude that the words do best.

But this does not mean that habilis was already a real language: the fact that there are communication systems, intermediate between language and the lack of it. We can observe them, for example, young children who are learning the language. At some point in their speech development, the child says so-called "holo-phrazes" - these are some words which, by their functions are equal to whole sentences, such as "! Mitten" could mean "I lost a mitten, and I am very sad," or "I found her lost mitten, hurray! ". The authors write that for the proper production of Olduvai tools necessary to learn a few concepts, such as chalk crust (it should be removed before taking a weapon), flat edge (precisely because it is supposed to be a flake), the angle of impact, bump (which it is necessary to direct blow). But in order to convey these concepts, it does not necessarily speak compound sentences - one-word replicas may well be enough.

In general, our language remarkably ill-suited for teaching work - even for very lengthy verbal instructions you are unlikely to be able to teach your friend, for example, tie a bowline knot, dance or do padegras Olduvai ax. Demonstration reliable. But the most reliable - not just a show, a show with the words, another man shows some action and captures key moments in words. For example, this can act as a short remarks like "chat", "Sharper beat!" "Here here prosun", "Stretch", "Step - crossed herself - step " and the like, but probably holo-phraze single words, in many cases it would be enough - especially for those who do not have the habit of proposals. These words are imprinted in the memory of the student, and then reproducing the appropriate action, mentally he pronounces them, and it helps him to make things right. By the way, such gestures when explanations are also quite appropriate, and contribute to a better understanding - but to play them, remembering the action more difficult than words, because it is difficult to do the hands of their own actions and gestures at the same time pointing his right to do.

The authors make quite correct conclusion that the increasing complexity of tool selection has assigned vector in the direction of the complexity of communicative system. Indeed, the more complex an instrument, the more detail it is necessary to take into account to make it, respectively, the worse operating instructions, limited to certain words, and those need to be able to say a lot of words in a single cue. And it already makes it necessary in the present human syntax and other properties that distinguish human language from the communication systems of other kinds.

What is Maslow's hierarchy?

Psychologist Dr. Doping tells about humanistic direction in psychology, hierarchy of needs and self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow was born April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. His theory of self-actualization of the person referred to in the direction of humanistic psychology, which for a variety of positions, compared with psychoanalysis and behavioral psychology, a new treats the person as a person. According to Maslow, a person is an indivisible whole, it can not "lay out" on some elements, units and components. Man as a person can only exist in the dynamics, only in development. Unlike psychoanalysis, Maslow studied healthy people, the so-called "growing tip of the society." He believed that the need to create a "psychology of a healthy person."

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The main research interest of Maslow has been associated with the problem needs. This is understandable, because the person in psychology is studied primarily in terms of its aspirations, desires, values. However, it is important not only characteristic of human needs, but also the ways, the means to meet them, then there is a certain concept of meeting the needs that Maslow offers.

The uniqueness of Maslow's theory is that he treated each person in terms of a specific hierarchy (superordinate structures) needs, the apex of which is the need for self-actualization. It defines self-actualization as a man's desire to self- embodiment, to actualization inherent in it potency. This desire to be what the person should be. And, as noted Maslow, self-actualization is not determined by social roles, status, position. For example, one person self-actualizing as a perfect parent and the other as an athlete, and the third as an artist, and so on. Nevertheless, a significant role in the development of personality Maslow assigns social environment.

The basis of needs pyramid are physiological needs: the need for food, and the other in a dream. Above them is built in the need for security: protection, stability, freedom from fear, anxiety and chaos in the structure, order. Over the need for security Maslow puts the need for belonging and love, and above it - the need for respect and recognition. The top of this pyramid, as has been said, is the need for self-actualization.

One of the most frequently asked questions: Why is it a pyramid? Maslow believed that only individuals reach the top of the pyramid and become self-actualized, ie reach their identity, or self. Most people operate on the level of satisfaction of physiological needs. Part of humanity satisfies physiological needs and security needs, that is, feeling well-fed, clothed and sheltered, the other part except those needs meets the need for love and belonging. Then there is this group of people, which reaches the level of recognition, confidence, a sense of importance, their own usefulness.

However, if we consider the needs of the pyramid, not only as a model of human functioning, but as a hierarchy of individual needs, be sure to mention the principle of satisfying needs.

According to Maslow, the way to achieve the top of the pyramid is through the consistent satisfaction of the lower needs.

In other words, self-actualization is difficult, if not satisfied with the physiological needs, safety needs, love and recognition. This provision Maslow's theory is often criticized.

His psychotherapeutic approach built on Maslow's theory of motivation, considering that "the basic needs is an essential step ... towards the main, the ultimate goal of psychotherapy - individual self-actualization"

A positive view of human nature and its possibilities opens up great prospects for the implementation of psychotherapeutic care of the individual in various life situations. Nevertheless, interest Maslow self-actualized a special group of people who focus on a healthy person may not always be sufficient resources for the study of human psychology injured, subjected to the influence of high intensity stressors.

Why do we sleep at night?

Dr. Doping tells about about internal human clock, daily cycle and bunker studies.

In the human brain in the hypothalamus area of the cell there is education, which performs the function of the internal clock. In this formation (nucleus) cells have a roughly 24-hour cycle of activity. Moreover, the maximum activity of the nucleus occurs at daytime, and the minimum - at night. Accordingly, the internal clock using different neural connections govern the activities of other parts of the brain, such as the respiratory center, other departments - the so-called secondary pacemakers - manage the activities of the whole organism.

The internal clock will learn about the day or night, from the retina of the eye from her to him stretches nervous twig retinyl hypothalamic tract. In the retina, there are special receptors, which perceive only light intensity. When the weather begins to get dark, the impulse comes to the internal clock signals and the cells that you need to slow down the metabolism to adapt to the night time.

A simple example of the error of the daily cycle - flights, when a person crosses several time zones, with its internal clock continues to operate as usual, but there is another light and another astronomical time. It turns desynchronosis - misalignment of internal and external clock. Gradually leveled cycle, the internal clock is in accordance with the external time (usually it takes a few days). There is a rule that no one has confirmed, but it is often voiced that one time zone offset is required one day devices.

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Blind people living on their own days, which differ from the 24-hour cycle. If they do not have some kind of regular social activity, they start living on their own daily and bad feeling. Or, for example, the internal clock of older people diagnosed with "marasmus" (dementia) can display any desired time, and the change it periodically.

For someone important is the ability to restructure quickly changing external time. It is estimated that one third of people experience difficulties when moving into several time zones, ie their internal clock to adapt quickly. (Metaprot could help).

To study the phenomenon of the internal clock were made bunker studies at the dawn of the space age in the 60s of the last century, when the caver Michel Siffre descended into the cave for three months. He brought down the internal clock, they began to walk with a period longer than 24 hours. More known bunker studies where volunteers-students descended in a former military bunker in Germany for several months have been cut off from the outside world. It was found that the frequency of the progress of our internal clock is not equal to the period of rotation of the Earth, and usually exceeds it. And so every day we adjust the internal clock of a rotation of the Earth.

Advanced technologies in the fight against aging

For a long time to work on aging it was considered unfashionable, because there was an idea that aging is involved a lot of different factors and aging - is a natural process, in which nothing is impossible to study.

Breakthrough in understanding the aging occurred when C. elegans model for the first time shown that there is a genetic component, when certain genes are knocked out, and worms (C.elegans) began to live longer. Then started the next phase of the study the biology of aging, when he began to seriously study the different molecular pathways, and how exactly it can be adjusted.

Now we pretty much know about the regulation on the level of metabolism, energy and so on. One of the areas of interest - is aging associated with aging of stem cells. Aging is a very complicated process, and stem cells - is one such process factors. According stem cell theory of aging, with age, the number of such cells is not reduced, but their activity decreases. Due to the reduction of the activity occurs and the aging of tissues. The practical question is whether we can somehow these old stem cells are reactivated, they again began to work as a youth. There are a number of experiments that show that this is indeed possible.

One of the fundamental experiment - an experiment with mice parabiosis when, during the experiment, scientists have linked the blood system of the old and young mice and then watched as the muscles are regenerated the old mouse. And it turned out that in this experiment, there is a rejuvenation of muscles in old mice. This suggests that the blood has some circulating factors which affect the activity of the aging process. Such experiments justify the need for the study of aging. In principle, progress in the identification of some regulatory pathways will be achieved in the future, and then, and in the development of drugs that will produce a rejuvenation of stem cells.

As far as I know, at the moment of some commercial products in this area does not yet exist, but at the same time, now very popular "among the people" different therapies using stem cells. The only problem - all of them in science is not have nothing. Basically it involved various charlatans whose actions usually end in tears. Although the idea of using stem cells for medical purposes is understandable and relevant to the inception of commercial products have to spend far too much research.

The most important thing that happens for the past 100 years - it is the prolongation of life by addressing the causes that reduce life abnormally. These reasons are primarily infectious diseases, trauma, oncology, in which the last 20 years achieved very great success.

But if you take the natural human life and our understanding of how to extend it, in this area we have great achievements. We want to make sure that people living to 100 and were 40-year-old, 30-year-old, that is, were in their prime. But such a goal contains a biological problem. Nature arranged for us so that we are up to a certain point, should be able to develop, we must be maintained plasticity, we need to grow the bones, the skull to grow. These changes can occur indefinitely, at some point, the maturation should take place. When a person becomes an adult, mature, it largely loses plasticity. And if the physical plasticity of us do not really care about the mental plasticity is extremely important. Beginning in 20-25 years, we begin to lose the ability to learn, and therefore, the ability to adapt to new conditions.

As a result, there is a question, and the age at which we had to stay: in 40-50 years, when we have lost the ability to plastically change, or in 15-20 years, when we were still able to learn very well, but still almost nothing has been able to ?

There are many research groups who are trying to understand the mechanisms of why people with age lose certain abilities. But most of all we know about these processes in the field of immunology. The immune system - is a system that over the years, almost lost, since, apparently, exhausted reserves of stem cells. But to say that there are established facts straight, what changes in the immune system and has a mechanism of aging, I can not. We know dozens of causes of aging, including the exhaustion of stem cells - progenitor cells of other tissues, but not about any of them, we can not say that it is definitely leading. It is very successful in the past decade is the fight against tumors. It turned out that in fact a fantastic variety of tumors. Every year we learn more that leukemia - this is not one disease, but several hundred very different diseases of the blood. And the main progress of oncology today is that we have come to understand that different leukemia should be treated differently. As a result of this understanding today the likelihood of a cure of the disease can be as high as 90%. We continue to use medicines that were invented some time ago, but now do this more effectively we know more accurately diagnose and more accurately we are able to treat. The sooner we know the nature of the damage that has occurred in our native cells, the more likely we will learn to live more efficiently.

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The answer to the question posed in the title, in my opinion, is as follows: the greatest success in the fight against aging give the development, allowing to eliminate the causes of interruption of the natural aging process. First, we can try to greatly reduce the number of various accidents (road, probably in the lead) and other humanic disasters, and it will be a great success in extending life. Secondly, we can win many infectious diseases that are rampant mainly in underdeveloped countries, and it will also be a great success in extending life. Thirdly, we can greatly reduce mortality from cancer, which also give a great contribution to the prolongation of life. All these achievements would not affect the natural aging process. In the strongly developed countries such as Japan and Western European countries, life expectancy is 80 years or more. Many were living to 100. It is conceivable that this is an exemplary natural human lifespan. Do you now how much to move this border? I do not know such. And whether it is necessary to move? Debatable.

One Direction - is the extension of healthy life and get rid of the so-called diseases of old age. It is no secret that in addition to the common senile decay of the body, there are a whole bunch, which is characteristic for older people: diabetes, high blood pressure, various cardiac arrhythmias. And in these areas, so many possibilities. In fact, many diseases retirement age does not solved with medication or using medical technologies, but simply the prevention of a healthy lifestyle. In addition, there are now very serious tools for reprogramming cells, which make it possible to carry out the restoration of individual organs and all body systems, such as liver or kidney problems.

However, in clinics do not use these technologies, and the use of all kinds of stem cell treatments is not allowed Food and Drug the Administration of the United States, which is a very important criterion. As for the medical tests that recently in Japan were made experiments on the retina implant, it was officially given a positive result. But it should be understood that in this experiment were used relatively simple things: there are planting only one cell layer thick, which globally is easier than creating a three-dimensional, highly structured body. But given that many countries are now very intensively are studies, such as the research institute (CIRA) in Kyoto, led by Professor Yamanaka (Yamanaka), at Johns Hopkins University (USA), in the UCLA (USA) and others, I think that will soon be possible to transplant kidney and liver tissues. Highly structured bodies, such as the heart, will of course be made later. Most likely, in the near future we will be able to update the person "in parts", but it does not remove the fundamental problem of cell death as a result of the death of the pledged mechanism.

And here we come to the second direction. Recently, periodically there are reports that found a gene or group of genes responsible for longevity. But then it turns out that this is not so. Attempts to find and eliminate the genetic predetermination of death - the task is unsuccessful. By natural physiological threshold of a hundred-odd years, which marked the beginning of the XX century II Mechnikov ( "Etudes of optimism", Paris, February 7, 1907), I think humanity will approach quickly. But what will happen next - it is unclear. Individually, we can replace the authorities, but to keep the mind and nervous tissue to leave a person, we do not come up with mechanisms.

The most promising are the work of studying the difference in life expectancy between closely related species. As part of these studies, scientists are trying to answer the question: why do people get cancer or heart disease and die after 60-70 years, after 20 monkeys, and mice after 1 year? Why do mice live up to 3 years, and bats for more than 40 years? If we were apes, we have all learned people to understand why they live so long.

It is important that the maximum difference in life expectancy is evolving very rapidly over the last 30 million years of primate evolution highest life expectancy has increased by three times. So, if we give our mind a person to continue this evolutionary development, then in another 30 million years the maximum duration of a person's life will grow back in three times - up to 300 years! But why wait for 30 million years? If we unravel the evolutionary mechanism that controls this process, we will be able to live to 300 years or more tomorrow.

With the 50-ies of XX century was considered proven that the mechanism of aging - it is oxidation. In each cell mitochondria produce free radicals that oxidize and destroy our DNA, thus causing aging. But, as it turned out, after 60 years, this hypothesis was untenable.

In mice experiments were performed to block the process of oxidation, and it turned out that this mechanism does not work. Nevertheless, oxidation does come. Experiments done by increasing the oxidation level in mice times 500. It would seem that the mouse must die after a dose, but to the surprise of scientists, the aging of mice is not affected.

That is, it became obvious that there is oxidation, but this is not the main process. If we remove the remaining processes, in the end, perhaps a million years oxidation kill us. But it is a very slow process, it has little effect on the aging, at least in mice. However, now researchers are trying to figure out how to reduce the oxidation of the body, although it is unclear whether it will have an effect or not.

There are researchers who believe that people with age is changing the hormonal composition of the body, so we can trick our body by introducing into it the hormones related to the young age. They think that if our body will recover. This idea is the basis of: about a hundred years ago, it was shown that if the blood system to link the two mice - the old and the young, the old mouse rejuvenate.


This work forgotten, but about 10 years ago, this experiment was repeated at Stanford University, and it turned out that, indeed, judging by the molecular markers of aging, rejuvenates old mouse. If you take the plasma of a young man and pour it into human plasma older, most of all, the second person is really rejuvenate. I do not know whether it is used in practice, but in America carry out such work.

Nevertheless, it is an active ingredient in this process is still not known why in the experiments using the same technology as a thousand years ago - plasma transfusion. For the transfusion of plasma do not need any permission, because, in fact, the transfusion of plasma or blood - a traditional medical practice. But if you select the molecule that is responsible for this process, in order to apply it, it will be necessary to obtain permission. That is, it must be tested, do a lot of different experiments. And then such a process will not be a blood transfusion, and it can be taken as a pill, inject into the blood and rejuvenate. But the fact is that no one knows the mechanism.

Down's syndrome (Mongolism, Trisomy 21)

Geneticist Dr. Doping tells the causes of Down syndrome, prenatal screening and experimental treatments. What is the reason for the development of Down syndrome? How is the system of early prenatal screening for hereditary and congenital diseases of the fetus? What developed experimental methods for treating Down's syndrome?

Down’s Syndrome (Mongolism, Trisomy 21) - is the most common hereditary disease. Its frequency is 1 at 600-800 births. It is connected with the fact that the child in each cell has an extra 21st chromosome. This is a small chromosome does not contain so many genes, but an excess of chromosomal material leads to very serious consequences. These children have a very definite look, they are different from all others, so that the midwife can diagnose at birth. The main problem, of course - it is mental retardation, and may have some malformations. In particular, it is not uncommon heart disease.

Down syndrome is known for a long time, it has been described for a long time, but what is the reason for its excess of chromosomal material, set French cytogenetics, scientist, physician Lejeune in the 60s of the last century. When the cause of the disease has been established, the main efforts of Lejeune were sent out to find some way of treatment, the method of correction.

However, it is a great success today in the treatment of this disease is not present. What a difference with such a large genetic defect is not yet possible. To correct the use pedagogical, educational measures, these children are developing. To do this, there are organizations - working in Moscow organization "Downside Up", where psychologists, teachers who help children grow and develop children's families.

Down's syndrome occurs, usually as a result of a new mutation - is the emergence of extra chromosome 21, and no repeated cases usually in families. There are times when there is a reorganization of chromosomes - a few percent, 4-5% of all cases of Down syndrome. They are connected with the fact that one of the parents carries a rebuilt 21th chromosome. Usually it is such a restructuring: 14 th or 15 th and 21 th exchange their plots. But parents everything is balanced - only as long as necessary. Just located is not as it should be. And when there is a parent education germ cells, the reproductive cells can be obtained unbalanced fertilization and such unbalanced sex cells can be obtained excess material of chromosome 21 and Down syndrome to develop. In such families, the risk increased, and these families initially directed at medical and genetic counseling on the portly diagnosis. In most situations, the risk is small, usually not exceeding a percent, can be up to percent.

Cyanocobalamin injection - is extremely important for DNA making.

The frequency of children born with Down syndrome increases with the age of the woman. It has been observed empirically, and for a long time considered the risk of recurrent cases of Down's syndrome in the family, take into account the age of the pregnant woman. But when you consider that women over 40 giving birth are not so many, and the majority of pregnant women - a young woman, the absolute number of such patients often are born from young mothers.

And then we come up with screening: among these women who do not have a very increased risk, identify high-risk group, to offer them some methods of detecting at their Down syndrome fetuses. Such methods have been invented. First, it is the study of serum markers in the blood of pregnant women. Now the method slightly expanded and found certain ultrasound markers that allow early as the first trimester to identify those women who have a suspicion that the fetus is not developing well, and is likely due to the fact that he has an extra chromosome.

Complex method of ultrasound and biochemical studies in the first trimester of pregnancy is massively applied in many countries.

In the past five years, he came to Russia as a system of early prenatal screening for hereditary and congenital diseases of the fetus. This system of early prenatal screening has been taken as the development of England. It was developed by Fetal Medicine Foundation, and a survey conducted by physicians expert-level ultrasound diagnostics. They look more markers. Now it is implemented in almost all regions of the Russian Federation.

Conducts surveys of pregnant women doctor-expert ultrasound, and conducted a biochemical analysis of some markers. The program calculates risk based on the fact that the doctor was an expert on these ultrasound of a pregnant woman, according to the biochemical studies of serum markers, as well as indicators such as age, smoking status, presence of diabetes, weight and some other parameters. If a woman is determined by the risk of having a sick child 1 to 100 and above, she was invited to the medical and genetic counseling for a more in-depth survey.

Repeatedly carried ultrasound, carried out medical and genetic counseling is offered invasive in-depth examination. Invasive examination can be carried out on the same day - take biological fetal material. In the first trimester chorionic villi biopsy is when a little later doing it amniocentesis: pierce the uterus, producing a quantity of amniotic fluid and fetal cells are already exploring. Research carried out by various methods: molecular cytogenetic or molecular genetic - and it allows you to determine whether he has an extra 21th chromosome.

Look not only the 21 th chromosome and Down syndrome, watch another 13 th and 18 th chromosome, the sex chromosomes. If the fetus is detected abnormality, the woman stands before the difficult choice - what to do with the pregnancy: the patient to continue wearing the fetus or to terminate a pregnancy? Today it is perhaps the most valid prenatal diagnosis program, and its first results have already been obtained. It is understood that each takes its decision, and quite a substantial proportion of women waives most invasive procedure because there is some danger, too. The invasive procedure carries a risk of miscarriage - this is a very small risk of about 1%, but it is comparable with the risk that the program expects.

There are the results of this program, and it turned out that the results are good, because in the 52 regions that today have gained at least a year of experience has been more than one million pregnant women. In the fall risk - in different regions in different ways - no more than 2% on average. This is a fairly large value. Now, a new research technology: you can see the extracellular fetal DNA, which gets into the blood of a pregnant woman, and this analysis to calculate the increased likelihood that the fetus has Down syndrome.

The last five years, this technology has already become applicable in clinical practice. While in some countries as a pilot, but in some countries it is already used widely enough. However, mainly in commercial structures: the technology is quite expensive. But if it will develop, there is a very good prospect of its use in screening. In particular, this technology allows you to reduce the number of women at risk and offer invasive diagnostics to confirm the diagnosis of chromosome analysis already in the fetus - almost orders. This is the path that is now developing a system of early prenatal screening, and, apparently, is the prospect of its development.

It is clear that not all women will have an abortion, and this can not be required. A significant proportion of women leaves a pregnancy for a variety of reasons. In civilized countries, the ratio is changed to these patients, improving social support for families, and it is becoming far less disastrous. I must say that we have to these patients were treated much better than it was 10-15 years ago. But still there is a need for some kind of assistance to these families, so there are methods - is experimental - treatment of these patients.

In particular, it is also an experimental method: in 2014 there was a publication of the American scientists that they were able to culture the cells to inactivate the extra 21st chromosome, her transplanted a gene that leads to inactivation of the normal X-chromosome in women.

This promising work offers hope that a way can appear therapy - already present, the etiological treatment of Down's syndrome.

Also in 2014 was more interesting work in experimental animals. Also from America, from New York, where scientists have tried to find a drug that would overcome two hurdles: first, the placental barrier to penetrate to the fetus, and then the blood-brain barrier to enter the brain of the fetus. And this drug could stimulate the development of the brain - without blocking the chromosome, but somehow stimulate brain development. This group of scientists does not attempt to fully correct the defect, but at least improve patient development. In mice they have obtained encouraging results

Another problem that often results in experimental animals, it is very difficult to transfer to a person, because human gene regulation, regulation of gene activity often differs from what happens in animals. Moreover, the experimental results were obtained in mice, and the mouse is still quite far away from the person - it's not a very successful model. Nevertheless, the results were encouraging, and this provides one of the outputs for these groups - at least hoped that these patients can develop not only, but also attempt to somehow corrected their condition.

This may be a solution of one of the ethical issues. The main ethical problem early prenatal screening and prenatal diagnosis in general - is, of course, that leads to results. When we make a prenatal diagnosis, the main thing that we want to have - is information about the state of health of the fetus. Family on to decide itself what to do. The family and doctors. The main problem is that most families choose abortion. And that from a certain part of society, for example on the part of religious leaders, very criticized.

Russian Orthodox Church approves prenatal diagnosis only if the procedure is done to learn about the state of health of the fetus and to prepare for the birth of a sick child. Abortion is not considered ethical to the religious point of view and in this regard on the part of quite a large number of people. The emergence of correction methods, treatment methods - this is a very important task, which will take off, including some of the ethical issues of prenatal diagnosis and genetics will bring to medicine, when we treat the patient, not get rid of him.

Hemoglobin

Cardiologist Dr. Doping tells about the problem of oxygen transport, excretion and respiration products blood oxygen binding. What is the problem of storing oxygen in a multicellular organism? What is a "heme"? As the atomic structure of the protein molecule responsible for connection of oxygen?

There are only 20 amino acids encoded by the genetic code, and none of these amino acids are not able to bind oxygen and definitely not able to connect it reversible. What can bind oxygen? It turns out that this is best made of metal ions such as copper ions or iron.

You can treat anemia with buy Cyanocobalamin injection, Pyridoxine injection, Dexamethazone, Bonomarlot, Nootropil, Prednisolon.

Metal should be chemically oxygen carrier, but because that it itself is oxidized, it is necessary to prevent oxidation. Iron, which operates an oxygen carrier, is not free, it binds in a structure called "heme". This enables less oxidized iron.

If we consider the unborn child in the womb, he does not have access to oxygen. He has his own oxygen system, the blood passes through the placenta, where blood vessels are washed, but do not mix with the mother's blood vessels, and this is where oxygen is selected for the needs of the developing fetus.

Anemia: Symptoms and Treatment

Cardiologist Dr. Doping tells about the causes of anemia, iron deficiency, and normal levels of hemoglobin in the blood.

Anemia (or, in simple terms, anemia) is a decrease in the number of oxygen-carrying red blood cells (RBCs), or reduce the number of key oxygen-carrying protein (hemoglobin), below a certain value. Normal levels of hemoglobin and red blood cells are different in different groups of patients, they are associated with age and sex. Men hemoglobin higher in women it is usually lower. The same applies to the number of red blood cells.

Symptoms of anemia

Symptoms of anemia are very similar for all of its varieties, but depending on the severity. If the body decreases the amount of hemoglobin or red blood cells that carry oxygen, there are serious problems with the delivery of oxygen to organs and tissues. Without oxygen it is impossible to develop energy from food components. Therefore, people with anemia develops severe weakness and sharply reduced exercise tolerance. They feel fatigue, lack of vitality and energy. Such feelings often appear already when the hemoglobin to a level below 10 g / l. When the hemoglobin level drops to below 8.7 g / l, in humans there is a strong weakness.

The critical value is a hemoglobin level of 6 g / l. People who have seen anemia with decreased hemoglobin below 6 g / l, a blood transfusion is needed. A drop in hemoglobin is less than 5 g / l requires an emergency blood transfusion. In such patients, besides weaknesses we can observe more severe symptoms. They have a shortness of breath, because the person is trying to breathe more often to compensate for the lack of oxygen due to the shifting of lung function. Also, there is tachycardia, that is, the heart begins to beat faster to pump more in a minute amount of blood through the vessels. In addition, when hemoglobin drops below 9 g / l is usually marked blanching of the skin, lips and sclera. Therefore, the diagnosis of anemia is often set on the basis of clinical symptoms. An experienced physician, seeing the patient pale, may suspect a decrease in hemoglobin or red blood cells.

Causes of anemia

Historically, early XXI century first described types of anemia associated with red cell destruction. Such destruction of red blood cells is called "hemolysis". Hemolysis can sometimes be seen in vitro. If you pick the wrong blood, red blood cells burst, hemoglobin is poured into a test tube and poured into the plasma. The same can happen and inside vessels. Red blood cells can be destroyed by a variety of reasons - from genetic defects to a long run on the solid substrate (march anemia) and receiving various medications.

There are lots of genetic polymorphisms, which lead to incorrect or hemoglobin synthesis or to what appears in the erythrocyte modified enzyme systems which, when taking certain medications contribute to the destruction of erythrocytes. In particular, this lack of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenises. Another type of hemolytic anemia - sickle cell anemia. People who have the heterozygous form of sickle cell disease are more resistant to malaria parasites. Heterozygote for genes of sickle cell disease are more likely to survive in Africa in an environment where there is a significant risk of infection with the malaria plasmodium (it is more difficult to infect their modified red blood cells). But if both parents were heterozygous form of sickle cell disease in the offspring are at risk of the disease homozygous form of the disease, and it will be very severe anemia.

The destruction of red blood cells with the appearance of hemolytic anemia in infants is associated with the mother's Rh-conflict and child. This is accompanied by the characteristic jaundice associated with the accumulation in the skin of products of hemoglobin breakdown.

One can treat anemia with Cyanocobalamin injection, Pyridoxine injection, Dexamethazone, Bonomarlot, Nootropil, Prednisolon.

The most common cause of anemia is a lack of iron in the body. The iron part of hemoglobin is oxygen carrier. If the body receives little iron, there is a lack of hemoglobin. Iron deficiency occurs when the wrong diet, iron deficiency income and problems with its absorption. Many patients with severe diseases of reduced iron absorption, even if they get enough of it from food.

It is also one of the most common causes of anemia is bleeding. That is logical that blood loss, including bleeding from the stomach or intestine, will lead to the fact that the number of erythrocytes and hemoglobin will decrease. A small but chronic blood loss may lead to iron deficiency. In particular, women who are constantly experiencing excessive physiological blood loss, iron deficiency anemia is often observed mild. Another cause of anemia is a problem with the intake of vitamins, essential for the synthesis of hemoglobin. These problems can be caused by lack of Vitamin B12(Cyanocobalamin) and folic acid in the diet. In particular, B12 deficiency can occur in hard vegetarians (vegans), and people who suffer from diseases of the stomach.

To deliver Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) into the body, it is necessary delivery factor of Castle gastric mucosa. Therefore, in patients with gastritis can often be observed B12-deficiency anemia because the suction factor is not synthesized in sufficient quantities and vitamin B12 is not absorbed even when sufficient supply of food. Another factor - folic acid. Its deficit is observed in patients with certain genetic defects and those who abuse alcohol. A large group of causes of anemia is associated with a reduction in the number of red blood cells, which is due to problems with the kidneys and various severe chronic diseases. This is due to the regulation of the amount of erythrocytes. In response to a decrease in the amount of oxygen in the blood are activated special factor HIF-1. Thereafter kidney give a signal to increase the number of erythrocytes, in the blood synthesizing hormone erythropoietin. This is the hormone that may apply athletes trying to enhance athletic performance. Normally it is synthesized in the kidney reducing the amount of oxygen to naturally increase the number of red blood cells. If the amount of erythropoietin declines in kidney diseases and various chronic diseases, and decrease the number of red blood cells.

Types of anemia

Anemia is divided into different groups according to the volume of red blood cells, the number of erythrocytes and hemoglobin in the way hematopoietic germ responsive anemia. The proper response of hematopoietic growth in the presence of anemia - strengthening and accelerating the formation of red blood cells. For example, when blood loss increases the number of reticulocytes, immature red blood cells. These types of anemia called hyper-regenerative (from the word "regeneration"). And by reducing the amount of erythropoietin develop hypo-regenerative types of anemia.

The volume of red blood cells and the amount of hemoglobin inside it depends on the amount of iron and vitamin B12 in the body. In terms of anemia, red blood cells are divided into microcytic, normocytic and macrocytic. In the case of types of anemia macrocytic corpuscular volume increases, microcytic decreases and decreases as the number of red blood cells forms normocytic anemia, but its volume is not changed. The same happens regarding erythrocyte hemoglobin saturation. Each red blood cell may be different amounts of hemoglobin. By reducing the amount of hemoglobin in the red blood cell decreases the color indicator, so anemia with a decrease in the amount of hemoglobin called hypochromic. Some anemia with increasing flow amount of hemoglobin in an individual erythrocyte while reducing the total number of erythrocytes, and these are called hyperchromic anemia. And there is anemia, which do not change the amount of hemoglobin in a single red blood cell. They are called normochromic.

Iron deficiency anemia is usually hypochromic microcytic and. Because iron deficiency decreases as the volume of red blood cell and hemoglobin within the red blood cell. Anemia associated with deficiency of B12 and folic acid, as a rule, macrocytic. That is, when these anemias fewer erythrocytes, but increases the volume of each red blood cell, because when the key B12 deficiency is the complexity of the formation of new red blood cells, while the adaptive responses as the body increases their volume.

The most "complicated" in terms of diagnostic types of anemia - is normochromic and normocytic species in which the number of red blood cells is reduced, but the volume of red blood cells is not changed, and the amount of hemoglobin in a red blood cell is normal. Such anemia are associated with severe chronic diseases, kidney disease, when the kidneys do not synthesize sufficient amount of erythropoietin. Such anemia observed in cancer because the tumor may produce substances that reduce the formation of red blood cells. It turns out that when the normal amount of vitamin B12, folic acid and iron deficiency anemia is still developing. However, it normocytic (normal volume of red blood cells) and normochromic (normal quantity of hemoglobin in red blood cells).

Treatment of anemia

Treatment of anemia depends on what has caused anemia. If iron deficiency anemia, the iron preparations are administered intravenously. At the same time the iron in oral form is very poorly absorbed, so it is extremely inefficient. In most cases, it is necessary to intravenous iron compounds. If the anemia is associated with bleeding, you need to find the source of bleeding and stop it. When B12-deficiency anemia is necessary to examine the stomach and eliminate hematological malignancies (threatening bone marrow diseases, colloquially called by the incorrect blood cancer). If the problem is in the stomach, it is necessary to improve its function and simultaneously enter the vitamin B12 and folic acid if it is marked disadvantage. Severe anemia, particularly in cancer patients treated by administration of iron and iron preparations, and can also be applied erythropoietin. In some cases it is necessary and administration of erythropoietin and iron and vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin).

And only if the hemoglobin begins to fall below 6 g / l, it is appropriate to transfuse the donor erythrocyte weight to achieve an acceptable level of hemoglobin. But modern strategy of anemia treatment says that if it is not an acute condition, especially not blood loss, then you need as far as possible try to adjust the parameters of blood by intravenous iron supplements, B12 and erythropoietin, but as long as possible not to resort to red blood cell transfusions because it is potentially much more dangerous procedure.

In practice, the increase in the number of red blood cells and hemoglobin in patients who have long suffered from anemia, regardless of its cause, often resulting in a dramatically enhanced well-being. Even heavy patients with stage IV cancer can feel the rush of vitality and a reduction in the degree of weakness and shortness of breath for anemia correction.

Recent research in the field of anemia

In recent years, much expanded range of markers and analyzes of steel makes it easier and faster, which allows to identify the causes of anemia. Simplified laboratory diagnosis of anemia. Modern research has mainly devoted himself to do effective drugs for the treatment of anemia. In particular, recently it has been developed with carbo-xymaltoze iron compound. High doses of iron associated with severe irritation of the inner shell of the vein, and new drugs to minimize the risk of damage to the veins and small blood vessels with the introduction of large amounts of iron. Perfection and erythropoietin, appear more stable formulations, which are suitable for a long-term administration. And of course, are being developed to synthesize substitutes not containing human erythrocytes.

In Soviet times, scientists have been working on the preparation "Perftoran" to be able to use the blood carrying blood substitute in war, when human blood is not available. We can say, to create artificial blood. Its benefits are clear. In human blood stringent storage conditions, defrosting, there is the problem of incompatibility between the blood donor and the recipient. If you develop a blood substitute, it will significantly simplify the management of patients with severe anemia and bleeding that develop away from places where there is a prepared blood.