Artificial Head Deformation

Anthropologist Dr. Doping classifications of artificial deformation, Sarmatians and discoveries in Central Asia

Deliberate changes in the shape of the head there for a long time. And scientists from the middle of the XIX century dealt with this topic professionally. Not surprisingly, the study began in those countries in which these customs are more common. For example, it was very popular in Spanish-language literature on Imbelloni author names. He owns one of the earliest of such classifications.

History of Head Deformation

Artificial head deformation is very common in some countries in South America, especially among the ancient Indians who populated countries such as Peru and Chile. In Mesoamerica deformation also occurs. This impact was very varied, sometimes led to radical changes in the shape of the head. That is, if you and me head shape is rounded and has a smooth shape, the deliberate impact on the plastic head of the child sometimes resulted in the final version of the appearance of the heads in the form of a pumpkin that is very elongated shapes. At the beginning of the XX century, experts who studied the old continent already, pay attention to the spread of these practices the ancient population of Eurasia. And of course, if we talk about the precursors, one can not call this remarkable scientist, archaeologist and anthropologist fats. This scientist, who lived and died in Leningrad during the blockade. His work is still quite in demand and quoted. He suggested adapting Imbelloni classification to domestic materials, with the Soviet Union. And we use the classification of its head artificial deformation.

The classifications Imbelloni and fats describes the different shape of the head, which is achieved in the end. This may be a ring or fronto-occipital deformation. Different names strain types from our and foreign authors reflect attempts to describe forms of the consequences of this action. What generally linked the possibility of deformation? We all know that children are born with not overgrown fontanel, there are seams that run through the human skull. Our head is in the process of its development is made up of individual bones, which are then fused. In adults, these joints completely obliterated, there are no holes, and this form becomes final, it does not change in the adult. But small children there is such a short period, when under mechanical stress on the head shape can change.

So it turns out that many people in ancient times and, perhaps, even, perhaps, in some of these remote ethnic groups who adhere to the traditional culture, for example, on the African continent, still practice such an impact. What are they doing? Sometimes the child may be very tight swaddle his head, and as such leave for a few years. Perhaps changing bandages, but a mechanical cleaning effect. Sometimes they tied special boards.

Perhaps, this custom was carried out first of all women, because after all they are more relevant to infants, young children. And, obviously, there are people who know exactly how to achieve the desired effect, because it is very unpredictable process, if it is a person do without some training. If we talk about the different cultures of antiquity, the impression arises that in some traditions, where it was made, there was some cultural canon. It was not just a fashion. It was an action that was carried out in order to attach the little man at some point necessary to the values of the whole tribe. In psychology and sociology is a category of opposition people into friends and foes. And this distinction is constantly taking place in various ancient cultures. To emphasize the belonging to a certain society, sometimes a particular social stratum, often elite, made sometimes even mutilating procedure.

There is an example from the excavations of the Kushan Empire (this time, close to the ancient) in Afghanistan: the tomb was excavated by a very rich woman. In her burial, archaeologists found a lot of gold, so it is usually called a queen. We do not know her social status, but it is clear that he was tall. She died somewhere in the 20 years of age. And this young woman was incredibly altered shape of the head, in the form of a completely elongated pumpkin. That is, it is clear that it was the custom associated with representatives of the higher social strata.

There is an impression that some radical forms of deformation of the head can affect a person's character, his behavior. This question is very much discussed by specialists, in particular those carried out X-ray, radiological investigations. In particular, the estimated change in shape of sella. As anthropologists deal with skulls, we can not at the physiological level to track these changes, but bone deformities can judge what the surrounding areas have been affected.

There were different points of view. Some experts say that, no matter how much change the shape of the head, the shape of sella does not change the base of the skull, as is usually conservative. It's still an important part of the skull, because there are many blood vessels and nerves. Otherwise, when you change the seat of the Turkish people would be incapacitated. But there is another point of view: some form of deformation led to an increase in the aggressiveness of people. In particular, the Sarmatians widely practiced just a ring shape of the head deformation. Sarmatians and act as representatives of a very energetic militarized populations for which empirically proved that they were aggressive, they had a very high percentage of military injuries. And maybe even the head deformation provoked in some sense a heightened aggressiveness. While on the other hand, we have absolutely examples, and agricultural population, which has similar effects conducted towards women. And it is unlikely there was a speech about the increasing aggressiveness. To improve brain function without head deformation – buy Cogitum, Semax, Piracetam, Nootropil, Cortexin.

General views and private features

The general theory for such deformations, it seems to me, does not exist when we parse a very long time cultural traditions. Now it is clear that, indeed, there were times, some cultural traditions and specific geographic locations where these customs were practiced. But in each case the reasons were absolutely specific, because I think it's based on some unique religious views.

Of course, we have some universal archetypal basic understanding of, say, the value of the head. Or in many mythological systems have cosmogonic stories about the origin of the sky. Very often it is associated - at least in the Indo-European tradition - with the head of a giant or some magical beings, that is, it is something universal. But, on the other hand, there is a local peculiarity. In some cultural traditions it was necessary to use for everyone - for boys and girls. In other cultural traditions emphasize affiliation, say, an elite layer, rather than some lower, because, apparently, this is a very important time-consuming impact it deserved not everyone.

If we talk about the spread of these practices, they go very deep. The oldest in Eurasia cases related to the Neolithic era. An Neolithic revolution, which is so named not because it was associated with some kind of social upheaval, but because there was a radical change in lifestyle of people, that is the transition to a producing economy, which lasted for hundreds and even thousands of years.

The story begins in the Fertile Crescent region, which includes such advanced countries as Iran, Iraq and Syria. Part of this is sickle in Israel. And other areas, which is part of the region - is Anatolia, the territory of modern Turkey. And there are about 9000 years ago there seems, customs deform child's head. And very often, apparently, do women.

We know that this cultural tradition of early farmers associated with the idea of fertility. Mankind first became settled, the lifestyle of hunters and gatherers passes to settler lifestyle. This immediately leads to the demographic consequences: a lot of people getting more children are born. And the role of women is quite different in this society. Characteristically, it is very often found numerous traces of deformation of children. It has been suggested that many of them were girls, when it comes to children's remains.

With the spread of Neolithic cultures along with these farmers and ranchers come, and these herdsmen settled in the steppe zone of Eurasia. In the Bronze Age already herdsmen specialists are also a manifestation of a radical distortion of the head. This is a period of, say, III-II millennium BC. Not everywhere, but it is in some groups. And it is interesting that pastoralists deformed head, apparently mostly boys. That is, there is another role of the man. It has already begun for a patriarchal society. Sometimes the occurrence of artificial deformation of the head or only men or only women helps us that existed 5,000 years ago to recreate some gender relations.

Great Migration

Sarmatians settled very well, and for them it was really very characteristic tradition, especially in the later Sarmatian it was spread. And adjacent culture, the people who left a bright trace in the history and in the written sources - is the Alans, at least in part of this tradition which was also distributed very widely.

And here we turn to a much later time - the time of the Great Migration. It begins, so to speak, in the II century BC (and this is due to climate changes primarily caused by them and political events) on the northern border of China. As a result of the great mass of the nomadic population are migrating to the west, gradually accumulate population that they meet on the way, and the process ends in the IV century already in Europe with the advent of such people as the Huns, and the conglomerate of tribes that they were headed. On his way Huns visited even in such territory as the Aral Sea region. Now the Aral Sea was dry, but in the beginning of our era and to the VIII century it was inhabited territory, the northern arm of the Great Silk Road. There are extensive anthropological data, telling us about the spread of artificial deformation of the head there, which reached a very strong manifestations. These deformations were carried out for women and for men. There is speculation that a group of people who migrated to the West, this tradition spread.

Next we see the emergence of the practice of artificial deformation of the head in the Central and Western Europe, which until then he had not met. There is a very strong anthropological research school in Hungary. And just as an example of the wave of migrants who in the I millenium come on Hungarian territory, they emit an artificial deformation of the head occur in the Sarmatian, come down to this area, in Gepids (this is, most likely, a Germanic tribe) and the Alans. Then (again, this is known thanks to the chroniclers, who recorded it all) members of this barbarous people from the east reach the territory of France. And there, too, found during excavations deformed skull. They seem to be associated with the Burgundians. Burgundy is a Germanic tribe, but nevertheless they had this custom.

On the territory of Germany itself cases of artificial deformation of the head is also described. An interesting work conducted by Professor Kurt Alt. In Germany, the deformation encountered only in males, and, apparently, one male generation. And then, this tradition is interrupted sharply, reflecting a typical example of male migration. That is, in this territory comes a man with a deformed head. It may be some outstanding warrior, a man of high social status. But even if he will have descendants, his wife does not know how to change the head of a child in common, how to maintain this tradition.

On the territory of Germany itself cases of artificial deformation of the head is also described. An interesting work conducted by Professor Kurt Alt. In Germany, the deformation encountered only in males, and, apparently, one male generation. And then, this tradition is interrupted sharply, reflecting a typical example of male migration. That is, in this territory comes a man with a deformed head. It may be some outstanding warrior, a man of high social status. But even if he will have descendants, his wife does not know how to change the head of a child in common, how to maintain this tradition.

Apparently, the tradition spread only when, along with men and women migrated to support this practice. And so I suggested that not always, but in some specific cases, can be considered distribution of artificial deformation of the head as the analysis of mitochondrial DNA, which is passed only through the mother, and then the influence of female carriers of the tradition key.

It would seem that the Burgundians - a Germanic tribe that is dissolved completely. But in the medieval images, and even in the XIX century there was such a thing as a burgundy cap, which was associated with a serious form of squeezing the baby's head. If a fresh look at some of the portraits hanging in the Louvre, we notice such unusual features. It is a tradition which no-no, and manifests itself. This is when it comes to such countries already considered a bulwark of European civilization. If you go beyond it, for example in Africa, there are tribes there that still adhere to this tradition. Rather, it is East Africa. Of course, there must be distinguished, if we talk about the cultural traditions that lead to the modification of the head, we have to talk about the custom for a long time to keep the child in the cradle. The fact is that if this cradle of rigid, solid, for example wood, and the baby's head all the time is limited to one place, there is an unintended deformation called beshik. Flattened back of the head is very common among the modern peoples of Central Asia.

The finds in Central Asia and the Crimea

If we talk about Central Asia, during World War II Maxim G. Levin, a remarkable Russian anthropologist, I was in Turkmenistan, and it left such ethnographic evidence just tight swaddling head boys and girls Turkmens who lived 70 years ago. And it is very interesting that the boys wore tight bandage to 5 years. And these girls filmed bandages only in adolescence. They marry early, so it was thought that they were the bride. It turns out, this is an important element of initiation, that is, the ritual of transition from one state to another. And the boys reach this particular maturity when it is necessary to remove the bandage, in fact at the time of the end of the first period of childhood. Even anthropologists fix this point it is for biological indicators, because in about 6 years, we have you replaced your teeth - teeth cut through the second generation. And in many societies traditional culture that moment marked a very important dedicatory ceremonies. In some of the cultural traditions of the children changed their name. That is, they are attached again to the values of society. At that moment of the Turkmen tribe that Levin studied, boys achieved this initiation to the breeding value in 6 years, and girls in the 12 years. Curious such a moment, in general, is very recent.

Such a practice can be called swaddling stop the Chinese. But here there is also a kind of canon of beauty. I think that still influences and opposition of male and female, and the selection of women of high social status. Because, of course, diapering limits mobility and performance. If we talk about the other parts of the body, probably, not to mention the custom, as the little finger amputation. There were such cases. And they confirmed anthropologically. Just a year ago, at the beginning of 2015, my colleagues and I have published a new study of well-known and previously studied materials of the Crimean-Koba grotto Murzak. This fresh dumping of the men and women of the Mesolithic, ie the middle of the Stone Age. Initially, the grotto was excavated before World War II. And the first time he described the famous Leningrad radiologist and anthropologist Dmitry Rokhlin in 1965.

We have repeated radiological investigations using modern digital X-ray equipment. Particular attention was drawn to the damage encountered on the female skeleton. In one grave adult men and women were buried. Perhaps the husband and wife. They lived thousands of years ago, but the skeleton is very well preserved, including a skeleton brush. And phalanx of little fingers on two hands the woman bear traces of amputation, and lifetime, with traces of healing. Moreover, the re-examination of the woman's skull revealed that it was a superficial scar in the back of the head, it was hidden under the hair, appeared a few years before his death. And that damage was interpreted by us as a symbolic trepanation - a special version of the scarring. We hypothesized that throughout his life this woman has passed at least two initiation rite. And at the time of each of these rites she suffered a very painful procedure, but, apparently, is very important to join the religious values that were in this tribe.

At some point, probably in the initiation, when she was a teenager could do trepanation, and the wound healed well, no complications were not. And later, probably when she married, her little fingers were partially amputated. These data are in good agreement with the rock paintings in the caves, which have already been described many years ago specialists in prehistoric art. There are often hand prints. Sometimes they are not phalanges. That is, anthropologists have found evidence of a similar ritual.

Post-traumatic stress disorder

About psychopathological experiences, the biological component of trauma and how to treat post-traumatic stress disorder

When, after heavy experiences people have observed related difficulties, we are talking about post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). People can pay attention to what thoughts or memories of the traumatic event burst into their thoughts affect their concentration during the day and appear like dreams at night. There are also day-dreams, and they can seem so real that a person can feel like once again facing the same traumatic experience. Sometimes this is called a re-experiencing psychopathological experience.

Psychopathological experiences

Psychopathological emotions vary widely and depend on the nature of the trauma. People with these emotions usually have the most acute symptoms of PTSD. One of the features of these experiences - intrusive memories and thoughts about his injuries. Patients usually recall the sad events with which they are faced in the past, such as the death of others. In addition, it can be frightening memories, because at the time of receipt of trauma a person usually experiences intense fear.

Sometimes memories of the past make people feel guilt, sadness or fear. Even if a person does not remember specifically, but simply faced with something that reminds him of the injury, he begins to feel the strain, anxiety and insecurity. For example, we often notice that the soldiers were coming home from the point of military operations, constant worry and feel uncomfortable in situations that feel vulnerable. They constantly monitor the opening and closing doors and are cautious in crowded places. In addition, the excitation system is activated quickly, they are often tense, irritable, have anxiety attacks happen. They can deal with it, even when you do not think about the injury.

Usually psychopathological experiences are transient and last for one or two minutes. But when a person is experiencing psychopathological experiences, they do not react to external stimuli. However, if you're talking to a man with psychopathological experiences and can engage him in a conversation, you can do it experiences shorter. In addition, there are medicines, such as "Valium", which help people to relax in such situations.

Symptoms and Diagnosis

The main symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder - is obsessive thoughts about his injuries, hyperexcitation and sometimes shame, guilt. Sometimes people can not experience emotions and behave like robots in everyday life. In other words, people do not feel any emotion or do not feel any particular emotions like pleasure. In addition, they constantly feel that they have to defend themselves, they are in a state of anxiety, they observed some symptoms of depression. These are the main group of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder.

It would be nice if there were a biological test that would tell us whether a person has PTSD symptoms without checking. But in general, PTSD is diagnosed by obtaining a detailed history of the patient all that had happened to him, and then study the history of each symptom. You can try Phenibut.

There are several criteria for the diagnosis, and if you watch enough of the symptoms, you can diagnose PTSD. However, there are people whose disorders do not meet the diagnostic criteria, because they have no symptoms, but still have symptoms related to PTSD. Sometimes, even if you do not fully respond diagnostic criteria, you still need help to cope with the current symptoms.

History of research

Interestingly, the researchers, based on the literature, referring to the "Iliad" and other historical sources, have proven that the people at all times aware of that terrible experience people will always respond to a strong emotional reaction. Nevertheless, as a formal diagnosis, the term "post-traumatic stress disorder" appeared only in 1980, that is, quite recently in terms of the history of psychiatry.

During the American Civil War, the Crimean War, the First and Second World Wars, the Korean War, the Vietnam War - all these events at the beginning of the conflict physicists, psychologists or mental health professionals to behave as if they have forgotten all previous experience previous wars. And every time you complete one of them carried out a clinical examination at a level higher for a given historical period.

During the First World War it was carried out a lot of work that was then called trench shock, or traumatic neurosis. US psychiatrist Abram Kardiner has written extensively on this subject, and Sigmund Freud wrote about it at the end of the First World War and during the Second. When people see so many injuries, serious understanding of the phenomenon begins, but, on the other hand, it seems that there is a tendency in society after major traumatic periods of knowledge about trauma and its importance gradually lost.

However, after World War II there was a classic study by Dr. Grinker and Spiegel about the pilots, which can be considered a remarkable description of PTSD. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a group of psychiatrists has been studying PTSD. Robert J.. Lifton was one of them, as well as my father, Henry Crystal. After that there was a whole group of people, including Matt Friedman, Terry Keane, Dennis Cerny et al., Which worked with the veterans of the Vietnam War, as well as many other researchers from around the world, such as Leo and Lars Eytinger Veyset. This field of research, the problem is relevant in all countries, and in each country there are people who study this phenomenon and contribute to the overall work.

One of the most important researchers of PTSD was Henry Krystal, who passed away last year. He was one of the survivors of Auschwitz, also went through other camps. When he was released from the camp, he decided to go to medical school. Eventually he moved to the US with his aunt, he graduated from medical school, began to study psychiatry and began to work with other survivors of the Nazi death camps. Examining other survivors claiming disability benefits, he carefully studied their cases, and that was one of the earliest descriptions of the syndrome of PTSD. He was a psychoanalyst, so trying to develop therapeutic approaches to the psychoanalytic perspective, which includes elements of behavioral psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and other disciplinary fields that interest him. Thus, he developed some improved therapy to help people with PTSD who have often observed problems with the expression of emotions and feelings.

Classification of trauma

One important outcome of these cultural experiences, as war and other major shocks was the fact that we have begun to expand the assessment of those situations that may lead to injury (trauma in adults, trauma in children, physical or sexual abuse), or situations where the patient is witnessing horrific events, and so on. Such a way of PTSD covers not only social groups such as soldiers in the society, for which PTSD is a significant problem.

What is often misunderstood about PTSD, is the fact that it is not so important, how severe are the events from the perspective of another person. Despite the fact that there are attempts to classify, or in some ways to narrow the set of events that were considered to be really traumatic for individuals causing injury is not so much an objective risk of events as its subjective meaning. For example, there are situations where people are sensitive to what appears to be quite harmless. This usually occurs because people believe that life in the form in which they knew it, was over; something deeply tragic and devastating happened to them, and it is perceived that way, even if other, everything looks different.

It is easy to get lost in the notation, so it is advisable to dilute the concept of PTSD and other types of reactions to stress. But you can imagine, for example, that some people break in a romantic relationship is experienced as the end of life in their familiar form. So, even if the event is not the result of PTSD, doctors have learned to take seriously the impact of such events on people's lives, and they are trying to help them, regardless of whether through a process of adaptation to the new situation they are.

Psychotherapy Treatment

The most common type of treatment for PTSD is, on the one hand, or psychotherapy or psychological counseling, on the other hand, the use of special drugs. Today no one is forcing people who are upset and concerned about the trauma, the traumatic story to tell again and again immediately after a traumatic experience. Previously, however, it is practiced: used equipment "to facilitate trauma» (traumatic debriefing), because it was thought that if I can do so that people told their story, the latter will feel better. But later it was discovered that too much insistence and a boost to the storytelling, as a rule, only intensified the negative memories and reactions to trauma.

Nowadays, there are a number of techniques that are used to very carefully bring people to them about their memories and conversation - counseling or psychotherapeutic techniques that are very useful. Among them, the most reliable and practiced are progressive exposure therapy (progressive exposure therapy), correction of cognitive distortions (cognitive processing therapy) and desensitization eye movement (eye movement desensitization). These therapies have much in common: they all start with the fact that people are taught to relax, because these therapies are effective, it is necessary to be able to relax and be relaxed when working with trauma. Each of them in their own concerns associated with trauma memories, playback injury and the analysis of those aspects of the traumatic situations that people find most difficult.

When progressive exposure therapy begin with memories that is associated with the injury and at the same time is the least painful, and learn to relax and not get frustrated. Then move on to the next point, which is painful, and so on. The correction of cognitive distortions have similar procedures, but, in addition, work is carried out, in which the patient tries to correct wrong ideas, assumptions or conclusions, drawn from a traumatic experience. For example, a woman who was sexually assaulted, may think that all men are dangerous. In fact, only some men are dangerous and traumatic writing ideas in a more adapted context is an important component of the correction of cognitive distortions. Desensitization eye movement, in turn, includes the elements of the other two modes of therapy, and a third component, wherein the therapist diverts patient, causing it to move the finger from one side to the other and to focus on the finger movement back and forth. This focus on the finger, which is not related to the injury, - equipment that helps some people relax during the traumatic memories.

There are also other techniques that are beginning to be explored. For example, there is a therapy based on mindfulness. They are different practices by which people can learn how to relax, and you can control their emotional reactions, as well as many other therapies. At the same time people find it enjoyable and useful. Another common aspect of all of these therapies is that they all contain didactic / educational component.

In the days when post-traumatic stress disorder was not yet clear, people come for treatment, but did not understand what was happening and thought that something was wrong with their heart, intestinal tract or head or something bad happens to them but they did not understand what it is. Lack of understanding was a source of anxiety and problems. So when the doctor explained to these people, that is post-traumatic stress disorder and that the symptoms that have been observed have been quite common and treatable, this understanding has helped people feel better.

Medication Treatment

Currently evidence for psychotherapy more convincing than those supporting the medication. However, there are a few tested medications that have been effective. Both drugs approved for the treatment in the United States, are antidepressant and have a similar mechanism of action. They are of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and one of them is called "sertraline" and the other - "paroxetine".

These standard antidepressant drugs developed for the treatment of depression. They are somewhat affect patients with PTSD and help many of them. There are also many other related products with a relatively proven efficacy. These include inhibitors of the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, as exemplified by the drug "venlafaxine". "Venlafaxine" studied for the treatment of PTSD, as well as several studies conducted earlier generations of antidepressants, such as "desipramine", "Imipramine", "amitriptyline", and monoamine oxidase inhibitors, which are commonly found in Europe and elsewhere.

Certain drugs used in clinical practice, have sufficient theoretical justification for use. These include the second-generation antipsychotic drugs, benzodiazepines, such as "Valium", anticonvulsants, such as "Lamotrignin", and a typical antidepressant "Trazodone," which is often prescribed as a sleeping pill. Such drugs are used to relieve anxiety, irritability, and generally help patients better control their emotions and normalize sleep. In general medication and psychotherapy show similar efficacy. In clinical practice, often one can observe cases where the treatment of patients with severe symptoms of PTSD and use of psychotherapy and medication.

Bank of brain tissue and SGK1

Recently there has been a lot of breakthroughs in the study of PTSD. One of the most exciting of them belongs to Dr. Ronald thinking of Yale University, who worked with the first collection of brain tissue in the area of PTSD. From a medical point of view, if the patient has some problems with the kidneys, it is likely that the doctor is well versed in this, as he had previously studied kidney biology in the context of all the possible renal disease. The doctor will look at kidney cells under a microscope and determine what happens to them.

The same approach has been very effective in some cases, neuropsychiatry: scientists managed to find out a lot about the biology of Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia and depression as a result of the study of tissue obtained at autopsy. However, the brain tissue samples of patients with PTSD never a collector, as it is quite a narrow field of research.

With the support of the Department of Veterans Affairs in 2016 began the first attempts to gather a collection of brain tissue PTSD, as well as the first study was published based on it, which, as expected, showed that only a part of our understanding of PTSD is true, while the other wrong. Brain tissue PTSD tells about many interesting things, and there is a story that perfectly illustrates it.

When PTSD is disrupted executive control of emotions, that is, our ability to calm down after a collision with something frightening in the environment. Some of the ways that we use in order to reassure themselves are to distraction. For example, when we say, "It's okay, do not worry", frontal cortex of our brain is responsible for the calming effect. The "brain bank" Now there is the fabric of the frontal cortex of PTSD, and Dr. Duman studied mRNA levels in this tissue. MRNA - a gene products encode proteins that our brains are made. It was found that the mRNA level called SGK1 was particularly low in the frontal cortex. SGK1 had never been studied in the field of PTSD, but to a lesser extent related to cortisol - a stress hormone that is released in people during stressful situations.

To understand what may indicate a low level of SGK1, we decided to study the stress, and the first thing we found was the observation that in the brain of animals subjected to stress, decreases the level of SGK1. Our second step, particularly interesting was the statement of the question: "What happens if he SGK1 levels low by itself? Does a low level of SGK1 any meaning? "We brought the animals with low levels of SGK1 in the brain, and they have been very sensitive to stress as if they already have PTSD, although they had never been subjected to stressful influences. Thus, the observation of low SGK1 in PTSD and low SGK1 levels in animals under stress means that low SGK1 make a person more disturbing.

What happens if the increase SGK1 levels? Doctor Doom used a special technique to create such conditions and then to maintain a high level of SGK1. It appears that in this case, the animals not developing PTSD. In other words, they become resistant to stress. This makes it possible to assume that, perhaps, one of the strategies to be followed by the study of PTSD - a search for drugs or other methods, such as exercise, which will be able to raise the level of SGK1.

Alternative research

This brand new strategy of transition from the molecular signals in the brain tissue to the new drug had never been used in PTSD, but has now become feasible. There are many other exciting areas. From the results of the brain scan we will learn about the possible contours of the brain involved in PTSD: these circuits are distorted as they are associated with the symptoms of PTSD (this is recognized by a functional neuro-scannining). From genetic studies we learn about gene variations that affect the sensitivity to stress.

For example, previous studies suggest that the serotonin transporter gene contributed to greater sensitivity to maltreatment of children in early childhood and increases the chances of their PTSD symptoms and depression. Studies of this type are now actively conducted in children and adults, and has recently found another gene that is associated with cortisol, FKBP5, changes which can be related to PTSD.

In particular, there is an interesting example of how biology comes to a new treatment. Currently, in 2016, we are testing a new drug for PTSD, which has been used to treat depression and pain syndromes - the drug ketamine anesthesia. Fifteen or twenty years of research have shown that, when the animals are subject to uncontrolled prolonged stress, over time, they begin to lose their synaptic connections (connections between nerve cells in the brain) in brain circuit competent for the regulation of mood, as well as in some areas responsible for thinking and higher cognitive functions.

One of the questions facing scientists - how to develop a treatment that aims not only to alleviate the symptoms of PTSD, but also in helping the brain restore synaptic connections between nerve cells that contours to effectively regulate mood? And, interestingly enough, Dr. Doom Laboratory found that the application of a single dose of ketamine on the contours of the animal really restore these synapses.

It's an incredible thing - to look through a microscope and actually see how these new "dendritic spines" grow up in an hour or two after a single dose of ketamine. Subsequently ketamine given to people with PTSD, and they showed clinical improvement. This is another exciting area where drugs are being developed not only on the basis of visible symptoms of disease, but in the context of brain circuits. It is a rational, scientific approach.

Thus, from the point of view of biology is now conducted a lot of interesting research, we are working on the study and dissemination of psychotherapy, ongoing research on genetics, and attempts are being made to develop drugs. Much of what is going on, has the potential to change our ideas about things relating to PTSD.

5 Myths About Alcohol

Myths about the dangers and benefits of alcoholic beverages

Drunkenness - characteristic of Russian tradition

It is not true. Russia takes the stage, which many Western countries took place in the early twentieth century, when the increase in incomes has led to increased drinking, which was reduced by the introduction of measures of state regulation of prices for alcoholic beverages and the restriction of time and places of sale. During the first half of the twentieth century, alcohol consumption was significantly lower in the USSR than in Western Europe. For example, between 1948-1950 alcohol consumption was as follows: France - 21.5, Spain - 10.0, Italy - 9.2, England - 6.0 US - 5.1, USSR - 1.85 L (in terms of pure alcohol per person per year). Until the 1960s, the level of alcohol consumption in the USSR did not exceed 5 liters per person per year: 1940 - 2.3 liters in 1950 - 1.7 liters per capita per year. Consumption has doubled in 1956 and tripled in 1962

Further, under Brezhnev, consumption grew, and in 1980-1984 the actual consumption of alcohol per capita was 13.1-14.8 l. Russia ranked first in Europe. However, this time due to unfavorable demographic dynamics (increased mortality and disease, reduced fertility) was classified Soviet statistics on this issue. Source of information - the report of the Public Chamber "Alcohol abuse in the Russian Federation: the socio-economic impacts and counter-measures."

Russian inclined to drink no more than any other people, and this tendency is regulated in the country carried out by the policy of restrictions or permit of the sale of alcohol. Due to the ability to induce euphoria of alcohol (and with regular consumption - dependent), the free availability of alcoholic beverages leads to alcohol abuse regardless of their nationality and of the state apparatus.

Moderate alcohol consumption is good for health

This is true only in part. Epidemiological studies show that people who consume alcohol in moderation (less than 50-100 grams in terms of pure alcohol per week), really are healthier and live longer as compared not only with those who drink more, but also to those who completely abstain . At moderate drinkers are also higher levels of education, income and physical activity (they often do in the gym or take a walk), they eat more fruits and vegetables and generally adhere to a healthy lifestyle. And stress levels are lower. However, to infer from the coincidence that this alcohol is the cause of good health, you should not. Moderate alcohol intake may simply be a marker of social well-being. A temperance poor health may be due to the fact that they do not consume alcohol, but on the contrary, the cause of this. Alcohol can not be recommended as a means of improving health. Useful substances contained in the wine are also contained in fruit juices. Meldonium and Phenotropil also can help you with alcohol withdrawal

There are genes in Russian that cause them to drink.

It is not true. None of the genes, which affect the consumption of alcohol, the Russian did not differ from the rest of the peoples of Europe. There are two groups of genes that are associated with the development of alcohol dependence. This alcohol metabolism genes and genes controlling the transmission of nerve impulses in the brain. alcohol metabolism takes place in two stages. On the ground formed a toxic product (acetaldehyde), delivers discomfort. In the second step this product is neutralized. Variants of genes, due to which the consumption of alcohol at a concentration of toxic acetaldehyde in the blood increased, common in East and South-East Asia (up to 70-80% of the population of these regions are carriers of gene variants). Carriers of these gene variants consume less alcohol, and have reduced the risk of developing alcoholism. In Europe, it found only one of these options - it's called ADH1B * 48His - and less than 10% of the population.


In the early 2000s, the Russian mass media spread false statement was that more than half of Russian are carriers of the gene variant, inherited it as if from the time of Genghis Khan. Moreover, it is the cause of this gene was called "Russian drunkenness." In fact, only one in ten Russian is a carrier of the gene variant. A Russian man who has this gene variant, consuming an average of 20% of alcohol less than those who do not have this gene variant. In Russia, the most common variant of this gene is found among the peoples of Southern Siberia (among the Buryats, Altai, Tuvan - up to 50% of the population). In the northern Mongoloids (the Chukchi, Khanty, Nenets), this option is absent or is present in a very small part of the population (no more than 5%). The notion that ADH1B * 48His gene variant is present in all Mongoloids - another myth created by the improper transfer of properties characteristic of southern Mongoloid (Chinese, Japanese, Koreans) on the north.

As for the genes controlling brain function, then such genes found several dozen, and identified their effects are weak. The manifestation of these genes depends on the conditions of education in childhood, and by cultural and social factors. Differences in frequency of occurrence of "risk" gene variants among the small European nations. For the population as a whole and not for an individual, the influence of social factors are much stronger than the effect of genes. During the anti-alcohol campaign of the 1980s, the population does not change the genes, and alcohol consumption has decreased by a third.

High levels of alcohol consumption and low life expectancy are due to patients with alcoholism

It is not true. Patients with alcoholism, of course, contribute to the unfavorable demographic situation. In fact, 12-14% of Russian men consume as much alcohol as the remaining 85%. However, at the level of the country's main contribution to the reduction of public health does not give this marginal, the strongest part of the drinking population, and 40-50% of those socially advantaged citizens who drink less, but still in excess of the safety of single doses of alcohol and consumption on average.

Women in Russia consume about 4 times less alcohol than men. A particularly dangerous alcohol during pregnancy. Even a glass of wine or a mug of beer, drunk expectant mother can harm the developing fetus, especially during the early stages of pregnancy, when laid tissues and organs. The consequences of alcohol use mother - fetal alcohol syndrome, significant violations of child development, including mental retardation. Cogitum, Cortexin, Semax can help to cope with alcohol intoxication of brains.

The main reason of alcoholic deaths - poor quality of alcohol

It is not true. It is not as and in quantity. Consider that the high cause of death of Russians - the "bad" spirits, can only people who do not have adequate sources of information. In Soviet times, when there was a state monopoly on the production of alcoholic beverages, the life expectancy of Russians decreased and mortality increased with an increase in production and sales of alcohol by state enterprises. With the introduction of restrictions in the mid-1980s, it has fallen sharply, not only mortality from acute alcohol poisoning, but the number of deaths from cardiovascular disease, homicide, suicide, the number of alcoholic psychoses, traffic accidents and other unfortunate indicators of alcohol-related. Total anti-alcohol campaign has saved over a million lives. Reduced mortality was accompanied by an increase in the birth rate. All of this is significantly blocked the negative effects of non-potable alcohol consumption (surrogates) certain categories of citizens.

Other factors influencing health status and life expectancy, - income level, the level of medical care and so on - have not changed during the anti-alcohol campaigns. This indicates that it is the amount of alcohol consumed is a key factor affecting the length of life of the Russians. Favorable demographics have changed with the introduction of restriction of alcohol sale time and price increases on alcoholic beverages. If surrogates consumption by limiting the sale of alcohol would have a significant, this led not to an improvement but a deterioration of demographic indicators. On mortality affects not only the absolute amount of alcohol in a drink beverage, but also how they are used. Consumption of spirits (and they account for 70% of the alcohol consumed in Russia), taking large single doses are much more dangerous than the consumption of the same amount of moderate doses of alcohol - no more than one or two glasses of wine a day.

The mechanisms of work and the regulation of actin-myosin motor of striated muscle

Dr. Doping tells about the "leverage" model, the action of actin and heart-law Frank-Starling. What is the function of myosin motors? In what condition are the muscles a few hours after death? What happens to the muscles during sports injuries?

To date, there are 35 classes of myosin motors 17 different myosin expressed in our genome. They are disbud, dual-head, with long tails, short, and a wide variety of functions. In addition to muscle contraction is cell motility, intracellular transport, movement of transmembrane proteins. In particular, the adaptation of the hair cells is related to the fact that there is a channel protein that is "pulling the rope gate" and opens this channel. These "gates" along the membrane carries one of myosin. For heart protection buy Meldonium, For brain – buy Piracetam.

If a person something happens and it is still 2 weeks, the muscles begin to occur changes. To muscles began to occur degradation changes, enough is not very long immobilization. Violation of physical activity causes the muscles atrophy.

FAQ: Feeding Evolution of Homo

5 facts about the causes of the transition from herbivorous diet to the carnivorous and competition between Neanderthals and Homo.

Trying to recreate the processes that led to the emergence of species Homo sapiens, - a traditional topic for anthropology and paleoanthropology. There are many areas (traditional morphological) that allow us to measure, describe the shape of the skeletal remains and make judgments about what they were created, and there is a more modern direction. Of course, the leader in them is paleogenetics. But there is also the direction of paleo-ecological that tries to recreate the way of life and the natural environment fossils of ancient humans.

• 1.Causes of evolutionary processes

The Paleoecological direction, in my opinion, can allow to find the mechanisms that trigger some evolutionary processes, as is not always obvious, and therefore developed those or other changes. We all know that the central process in anthropology - it encephalization, ie an increase in brain volume. This process begins in ancient times, before the advent of direct human ancestors. That is, the ancestors of Australopithecus are already beginning to show characteristics that allow us to assume that the process will soon be launched. Perhaps one of the triggers was the set of bipedal locomotion, which resulted in increasing the size of the pelvis. And that in itself is a trigger, as it allows to increase the size of the newborn creature's head. There are many such automated processes, which should be monitored by us. And in this very diverse paleoecological direction have an interesting theme - ecology nutrition human ancestors.

• 2.Role of Encephalization in the Evolution

Species within the genus of Homo, fossil, apparently, were varied in the choice of food types. Initially, all primates, especially larger primates tropical - this being advantageously herbivorous, unlike small primates that may be carnivorous and omnivorous. Still, large primates chimpanzees type gorillas prefer vegetarian food. Go to the strategy carnivorous food - a cornerstone event, because it is very seldom that mostly vegetarians become so carnivorous. And, oddly enough, this transition is associated not only with a change in lifestyle but also with encephalization because only high-protein diet allows for a very rapid development of the person and it is the brain structures. To improve brains – buy Cogitum, Phenylpiracetam, Piracetam, Picamilon, Cortexin, Cerebrolysin.

• 3.Formation of a new type of feeding

Brain is very energetically expensive structure and unfavorable; when one works intelligently, it consumes enormous amounts of energy. Therefore, only very secured energy body can afford to have such a large brain. Moreover, intense brain growth occurs in infants and children up to three years. Thus, the order of a million years ago, in the world there is a new predator, it is not similar to what it was before. And the formation of a carnivorous diet, this predatory lifestyle coincides with the first large-scale human migrations out of Africa.

Drinking large amounts of protein and fat helped to intensify the process of building a variety of fabrics, and similar processes we can find in the evolution of different predators. That is the evolutionary race begins: Who will take the place in this competition between large predators - and the race begins first and foremost in size: who is more and who is stronger. And apparently, people in this area very quickly evolved. Curiosity and diversity of activities primates leads to the fact that they are developing very rapidly in different directions. And apparently, already erectus stage a person begins to cook.

Thus, from one to two million years ago formed the complex features of this carnivorous substance, and people continued to remain within these limits during the extended period. In fact, it is best to date from fossils studied Neanderthals. This is a later form, which coexisted with sapiens.

• 4.Tools of research in the study of feeding of fossil forms

This study of the state of the surface of teeth: how they are worn out exactly how they are worn. There are analytical techniques to study the composition of bone tissue and dental tissues, and especially the study of the isotopic composition, which allows us to reconstruct what these creatures ate, whether it was a vegetable food, which. All can be reconstructed based on the isotopic data of some chemical elements - is primarily carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and others. And with regard to the Neanderthals, while in the coordinates of the concept of "trophic pyramid", "trophic chain", you can really tell that the man - the king of nature, in the sense that he crowned this pyramid. We were repeatedly set very high levels of the trophic position of the Neanderthals. In the early 90s the first generalizing works have been published by the French Bioarchaeology that go to school under the direction of Herve Boucher - it is very productive and now continues to operate. Thus, the concept hyper-carnivores Neanderthals was confirmed.

• 5.Research of Homo sapiens

As for sapiens, it is an interesting question, because the type of food - it is not only the physiology and morphology, and behavior. For collective hunt it involves a very high level of communication and promotes mutual understanding.

In recent decades, there is already research sapiens. This is primarily the European sites. And it turned out that they have much more variety in the types of food, and above all in the food resources than in Neanderthals. Neanderthals were clearly focused on a specific production - very large herbivorous mammals, though, when sapiens lived in similar ecological conditions, they too chose this strategy. Thus, the king of nature, which was announced in the form of a Neanderthal, repeated to a certain extent and sapiens. Of course, in situations where communities of these two forms appeared nearby, they competed, and the similarity of food policies could not be the reason for this. Perhaps this is one of the reasons for the displacement of the Neanderthals from the evolutionary scene. But in order to verify this hypothesis or reject it, we need to continue isotope studies in situations where representatives of sapiens and Neanderthals are as close as possible.

FAQ: Genes and alcohol resistance

6 facts that affect the appearance of dependency and how to regulate their genetic characteristics 

Alcohol problem is of paramount importance for Russia. Russians live on less than the population of Europe, and if, as demographers say the Europeans every year, life expectancy increased by an average of two months, in Russia, life expectancy fluctuates, but does not exceed a certain threshold level. Experts say that the main reason for the low life expectancy - is the consumption of alcohol in very large quantities, and a large proportion of hard liquor.

• 1.Enzymes, which determine the effect of alcohol

There are genes that affect alcohol intake. Are genes encoding enzymes which oxidize ethanol. One enzyme called "alcohol dehydrogenase", it turns alcohol into acetaldehyde. It acetaldehyde causes unpleasant sensations experienced by people who had been drinking too much alcohol; a hangover the next day, too, due to the influence of alcohol oxidation products. A second enzyme oxidizes acetaldehyde to safe substances. That is, the alcohol in the human body is converted into a toxic substance that is neutralized in the next step of oxidation. The speed of these two reactions is determined genetically. If the first step - the oxidation of alcohol to a toxic product - goes fast, a person is physically unable to drink a lot, because it quickly accumulate a toxic substance and there are associated effects: facial flushing, sweating, palpitations, dizziness, nausea and other unpleasant symptoms. People who have genetically determined more rapid conversion of alcohol to acetaldehyde, consume on average 20% less alcohol.

• 2.The genetic characteristics of different nationalities

Among Russian carriers of this gene variant about 10%, and in China and Japan, carriers of this gene variant is much more - 70%. And that is connected with this feature of the East Asian population - the inability to drink large amounts of alcohol. It is important that not every person is not able to drink a lot of these areas, but the majority of the population is protected from excessive consumption of such genetic characteristics. In addition to work quickly alcohol is common in East Asia is yet another mutation that blocks the next stage - the neutralization of toxic acetaldehyde. And people who acetaldehyde accumulates very quickly, in a concentration of about 30 times higher than that of the Europeans, can not become alcoholics: they are simply not able to drink that amount of alcohol to have originated alcohol dependence. This second mutation in Russia is almost absent. Therefore, if we talk about the genetic features of Russian and other features of the peoples of our country, we can say that the genes can not make them drink, but let them do it.

• 3.How do genes influence the emotions

Furthermore genes that affect the rate of alcohol oxidation and removal of the oxidation products from the body, there are still other genes that regulate the nerve impulse transmission characteristics. These genes affect the emotional state of a person, especially on his psyche and behavior. And with these genes is associated more or less likely to develop alcohol or drug dependence. The study of these genes allows us to understand the mechanisms of these dependencies, and to find molecular targets that can be used for drug development. These studies are worldwide, including in Russia. To cope with alcohol withdrawal – buy Meldonium, Phenotropil, Mexidol.

• 4.What gives the study of genes

When geneticists find any gene associated with the development of dependency, it does not mean that the gene is fully determines whether a person is an alcoholic or not. And alcoholism, and drug addiction - a disease that are affected by many genes with weak effects. This does not mean that these genes do not look for or they are not important, because although one gene, five or ten can not make an accurate prediction becomes a person an alcoholic or not, the discovery of these genes allows us to understand the molecular mechanisms of action of addictive substances. And then, is it possible to them to predict the risk of addiction is the subject of separate studies.

• 5.How environment affects genes

It turns out that the exercise of different variants of these genes is dependent on environmental conditions. In poor conditions of education in childhood genetic differences manifest themselves, and 'risky' variants exert their effects; for example, people are more prone to depression, or have a high probability of occurrence of antisocial behavior. In good conditions, the genetic differences are leveled. Good training conditions allow to compensate for genetic defects, so all children should be brought up well no matter what their genes.

• 6.Genes and treatment of addiction

Mutations in the gene that controls the toxic acetaldehyde oxidation, lead to the accumulation of toxic products is accelerated, and its destruction does not occur. Such people can not become alcoholics because they are physically so bad that they drink not. People often ask, "Can we use it to treat?". But this feature is used to treat. There are drugs that block the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and thus make, for example, the Russians on the specifics of the transformation of ethanol in the liver like a Chinese with such a mutation.

What is the humoral regulation?

The biologist Dr. Doping speaks about the benefits of humoral regulation to nervous function norepinephrine and types of hormone receptors.

Why is there a humoral regulation - regulation by substances dissolved in liquids? Why not restrict the nervous regulation?

If living things are the result of the act of creation, and the hormones would not be. All machines and devices, designed and created by man, regulatory circuits consist only of mechanical parts and electrical circuits. None of the artifact, the product of human activity, there is no system of regulation by means of chemicals that would be distributed throughout the unit, and to alter the activity of a particular node. But living organisms - the product of evolution. The first living creatures appeared in the water, and their livelihoods regulated chemicals dissolved in the environment, partly penetrating inside a living cell and develops inside the cell. These substances can not be called regulators hormones, but the principle of regulation by means of substances dissolved in liquids, ie, humoral regulation, appeared simultaneously with the emergence of life on Earth. Before the transmission of information via nerve cells was still a billion years.

It should be noted that the division of the nervous and humoral regulation of probation. The nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another neuron and on the Executive cell with chemicals, which we call transmitters, or mediators. Moreover, the nerves are not suited to every cell. The endings of nerve cells "service" entire groups of cells: a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings distributed interstitial fluid. Or, for example, the sympathetic nervous system neurotransmitter, norepinephrine, released in the walls of capillaries in muscle tissue and spreads through the bloodstream, acting in the role of this hormone. (You can buy Adrenaline (Epinephrine) injection, Prednisolon, Dexamethasone injection).

What distinguishes the humoral regulation of nerve? Hormones are substances secreted by specialized cells throughout the body through the bloodstream and interact with target cells. It becomes clear fundamental differences of nervous and humoral regulation. First, the nerve signal direction and humoral - no. The regulation of contractile activity of skeletal muscle is possible, of course, only by means of the nervous system - otherwise provide subtle movements of our fingers, tongue, lips, vocal cords? But when you need to increase, for example, delivery of glucose to all cells of the body, hormones to cope with this task remarkably effective. Second, the nerve signal fast and humoral - slow. Some changes in the environment require an immediate response, while others - not. And, thirdly, the humoral signals a long and nerve - short. Some of the changes in the environment require persistent changes in the activity of the whole organism or individual systems, and in these cases the nervous humoral regulation effectively.

It should be stressed that the fact that the nervous regulation of humoral much younger in evolutionary terms, it does not follow that evolution is aimed at reducing the role of humoral regulation, in particular the role of hormones, and increasing the role of the nervous regulation. Humoral regulation is complicated in the course of evolution. In fish, the same hormone performs a variety of functions, each of which in mammals appeared specialized hormones. In the course of evolution, it increases the amount of hormone receptor types and complicated gistogematicalkie barriers.

In conclusion, the engineering thought did not realize until just principle of humoral regulation of functions. Many other achievements of evolution has not yet been used in the art. For example, all electrical devices operate on the principle "incl. / Off.", Zero or one. A nervous system in living organisms there braking process. By the way, we appreciate Ivan Sechenov not its materialistic views, as is often written in the textbooks, and for the discovery of the process of central inhibition. It can be assumed that the establishment of the brake circuits will significantly increase the effectiveness of cybernetic systems.

The genetic history of humans and the present

The biologist Dr. Doping tells about on the Y-chromosome, mitochondrial DNA and accumulation of mutations.How growing world population? How do scientists study the genetic history of mankind? When and how were the first to read the full genome?

Perhaps now everyone knows that human genetic roots in Africa. That's where our ancestors lived about 150-200 million years ago. These dating change, there are new methods and new data. As genetic diversity of modern human population ancestral population that lived in Africa, estimated at 10-30 thousand people.

Settling studied by analyzing human DNA by using two specific region of the genome: the mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome. All other chromosomes are mixed, and mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome is passed without stirring, so for them it is easier to restore the history and track the accumulation of mutations. Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin injection - is essential for DNA making.

All the mitochondrial DNA of living people converge to a single ancestor - mitochondrial Eve, who lived according to the latest estimates of 180 thousand years ago. If you build a tree on the Y-chromosome to all of humanity, we will get a convergence of modern lines in the general field. And the first is division of humanity into African and non-African lines.

Influenza: the evolution of the virus and universal vaccine

The biologist Dr. Doping speaks about the occurrence of epidemics of influenza, the virus the causes of evolution, the search for a universal vaccine and the risk of the swine flu strain (H1N1).

People are dying because of the evolution. About 30% of deaths occurring on the globe can be attributed to the evolution of simple organisms, starting with infectious agents that attack us all the time, - viruses, fungi and bacteria - and ending with our own body cells, changes that sometimes lead to cancer.

One of the worst infections - the most common flu. Every year it takes the lives of about 250 thousand, and in some years more. The biggest known outbreaks of influenza - the famous Spanish flu of 1918, which destroyed a few percent of the world's population.

The strain of the influenza virus

As with any biological entity, each virus continually changes occurring as a result of mutations in its genome. The influenza virus - one of relatively fast-changing virus. One reason - that its genetic information is encoded RNA molecules, rather than DNA, for example, our genome; RNA - a molecule mutate easily. Another reason - a virus acts continuously selection: many of the mutations occurring in its genome are "useful" for him, allowing to efficiently transmit, for example, among people.

Due to the properties of accumulating mutations of influenza virus changes gradually. The most notable result of mutations for us - it changes the antigenic properties of the virus, that is, the ability of the cells of our immune system to recognize the strain. Such incremental changes are called antigenic drift. Now it is believed that most of the antigenic drift is in the tropics, where the flu is not pronounced seasonal epidemics and is kept at the same level in the human population all year round. But in the northern and southern hemispheres - respectively, in December-March and June-October - every year there are new epidemics. WHO usually recommend a new vaccine composition for six months before the vaccine is really starting to be used - for the reason that its production cycle is quite long.

The evolution of the influenza virus

In addition to the gradual antigenic drift, the evolution of the influenza virus is characterized as antigenic shifts - radical changes in virus characteristics that are commonly associated with reassortment. In the influenza virus genome is recorded on eight separate segments, a little reminiscent of the human chromosomes. When the host cell is infected simultaneously by two viral particles of two different strains, these segments are mixed up, and it may be a new virus particle with new properties, consisting partly of the segments of the parent strain, and partly - of the other. Such reassortant strains often differ in their properties from the parent strains and sometimes lead to large epidemics. All the major pandemics of the twentieth century, about which we know - a pandemic 50-70-ies, as well as, most likely, a Spaniard in 1918 - were caused, apparently, such reassortment when the strains coming from different types of organisms, such as birds, pigs, horses, mixed and allowed something new with which the human immune system has not previously encountered.

Prediction of virus mutation

Whether influenza evolution is predictable? In the short term – yes, it is. Recent scientific studies show that you can kind of predict the future evolution of the virus, if you know about his previous evolution. It can be as evolutionists like to build an evolutionary tree. And at the usual influenza A virus, it has a very characteristic form: a separate trunk, which runs stubby twigs. When you see a tree of such a form, you can almost always be sure that you are dealing with a pathogen. There is one single line that is evolutionarily successful, and it is characterized by rapid change, so that the immune system of collective humanity is necessary all the time to shoot at a moving target. From her other lines branch off, which eventually die out. However, some variety there are permanently.

To at least roughly understand looking at the diversity of this year, some of the strains observed in the current year will give the epidemic the following year, it is necessary to look at what the mutations are different strains from each other. If the virus has accumulated a large number of mutations in its epitopes, that is, in places of their surface (sticking out) proteins that are "visible" to the immune system, it is likely he will be invisible to the immune system, and therefore is likely effective. Conversely, if he had any mutations in internal genes, these mutations are likely to be harmful - they make the virus less fit, and these lines will become extinct. It is possible to construct a mathematical model, based on the number of mutations in the epitopes and other places, which predicts future evolutionary success of the virus. In addition, it is possible to study how the virus strain has been evolutionarily successful so far, and extrapolate it into the future. Such approaches have limitations; for example, they do not yet take into account the interaction between genes. At 11 genes of the virus of influenza, and they all interact with each other in complex ways. In drawing up this type of forecast considerations is usually omitted, although different groups, including ours, have shown that they are really important. However, in the short term, they are important.

Predicting the long-term evolution of the virus, including antigenic shifts, much more difficult. At least for this we must learn to understand what kind of strains currently observed will reassortant, which can lead to the following serious epidemic. Such predictions, we do not know how, because there are so many confounding factors. It is important to look to anyone else interacts people, it is important to try to predict exactly which strains are more likely to easily "learn" from person to person.

How there are epidemics

Epidemics can cause strains present in the population before. For example, the current epidemic of 2016 caused by the influenza virus, first seen in humans in 2009. Usually, however, the most serious epidemics caused by strains, new to humans. To happen this epidemic to happen several events. In some animal species, interacts with people, it should be a variant of a pathogen that can infect humans; This option should be transmitted to humans; Finally, as a rule, he must acquire additional mutations that allow it to efficiently infect humans. The probability of each of these events is very difficult to estimate, so in advance to predict the epidemic, we can not.

Swine Flu H1N1

This year, about two-thirds of all cases of influenza caused by pandemic H1N1 strain of 2009, known under the name "swine." This virus was really seems to get a person from pigs, but the same is true for many other viruses: transmission from pigs - it is quite a frequent mechanism for the emergence of new strains in humans. A striking feature of the H1N1 / 09 - it is a very interesting origin: some of its segments came from bird flu, some - of swine, some - of ordinary human H3N2, which has so far caused all infections. A melting pot where all these segments have met each other, became pigs. It is now clear that the mortality rate from H1N1 / 09 is approximately the same as that of ordinary flu, we hurt each year before (although there are nuances). In fact, this year the H1N1 / 09 was the seasonal flu, and it is possible that he will remain with us for many years.

A universal flu vaccine

From the flu there is a fairly effective vaccine. But the problem is that it is always out of date, because every year the virus evolves, changing its antigenic properties and once again becoming a stranger to our immune system. The vaccine is a result have to be constantly updated. Each year, experts from the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that all producers of the new composition of the so-called trivalent vaccine, listing the three strains that should be incorporated into it. Best of all trivalent vaccine protects it from them. Although, of course, there is a cross protection, and from strains antigenically similar properties to these three strains, it will protect well, too. Nevertheless vaccinated against the flu every year, we recommend, and rightly so. this year's trivalent vaccine includes the H1N1 / 09, so that those who are vaccinated in the autumn, is now likely to win. The vaccination does not guarantee that you will not get sick, but reduces the likelihood of this.

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Predictions of how exactly will the evolution of influenza would be less relevant if we learned how to make a universal vaccine that protects against all strains. While there is a vaccine, although several candidates in clinical trials. The difficulty is that the immune "visible" system are exactly the virus surface proteins (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) that the virus easily and painlessly for themselves can change. Therefore, vaccination is difficult to explain the immune system, in that it, in fact, it is necessary to aim.

Artificial synthesis of an influenza strain

It has been sensational work of one group from the Netherlands and groups from Japan, where researchers have tried to synthesize hand strain of bird flu, which would be able to be transmitted between mammals. They succeeded. Their work was considered ethically controversial, because they were all afraid that a synthetic strain can "escape" from the laboratory that it is not necessary genes to spread in open access, because somebody is maliciously can be synthesized. However, now we know what properties may have the strain of bird flu that can be transmitted to humans.

The evolution of viruses and immunity

The biologist Dr. Doping speaks about virus survival strategies, depending on the evolution of the ways of the DNA and an endless arms race organisms.

There is a famous question: which came first - the chicken or the egg? You can just ask which came first - a virus or immunity? And, as in the question of the chicken and the egg, neither of the answer may not be true. The correct answer is that they occur simultaneously in constant interaction, from simpler shapes. As soon as the virus or virus-like parasites - and they were, apparently, at the same time with the birth of life - immediately appeared and protection from them.

History of the study of viruses

Protection, more precisely, vaccines against viruses have appeared before the people realized that this virus. They understood that there are infectious diseases, but did not see any difference between the bacteria, viruses and even what some amoebas. Apparently, there was the first vaccine against smallpox, which the English physician Edward Jenner created at the end of the XVIII century. Anyway, this is the first documented case studies and the use of the vaccine. Later, in the 1870s, another famous event happened - the creation of Louis Pasteur's rabies vaccine. It worked fine and looked like a miracle: quite an incurable disease that can be prevented and even cured if in time to begin treatment with these vaccines.

But this vaccine created blindly. Any ideas about that there is a special type of agent that causes the disease, has not been. These ideas began to emerge in the late XIX century. In 1890 was a Russian scientist, Dmitri Ivanovsky, then a young man who is ready to defend his thesis, is not particularly remarkable. He investigated the tobacco disease and was the first who paid attention to the fact that the disease is transmitted from the juice of diseased plants. That is the causative agent of the disease once passed through filters that do not pass the bacteria. Ivanovsky not really understand this living organism or not, he probably thought it was a toxin, although suspected, that it started somehow reproduces itself. But be that as it may, the first to describe an object, drew the attention of the scientific community and has become, in fact, the founder of virology. And then a fairly short period of time has been made a number of important discoveries: it has been shown that many diseases are caused by viruses - foot and mouth disease, yellow fever, polio, avian sarcoma.

English bacteriologist Frederick Tuerto in 1915, described in an article group of viruses that infect bacteria, and French-Canadian microbiologist Felix D'Erell in 1917 described the virus in detail and gave them the name of bacteriophages, ie "eaters of bacteria ', because when added to bacteria in a nutrient medium, these viruses to create a dead zone bacteria. Thus, by the end of the First World War it became clear that there are some tiny agents that constitute a very special class of parasites.

Viruses vs. immune system

Speaking about the opposition of viruses and bacteria, you can remember such a thing, it is officially recognized in biological science and plays a huge role - it is the arms race. It sounds anthropomorphic, but it officially adopted the term. The whole history of life - it's an arms race between hosts and parasites. The fact that any immunity is based on the recognition of his and others'. The process of combating viruses and immunity can be illustrated by the well-known phrase from the Red Queen's "Alice in Wonderland", which said that in order to stay in place, you need to escape as quickly as possible. For example, making the now famous CRISPR system? She borrows the genome of the parasite - not the whole, of course, a piece long enough to be sure (well, almost-almost exactly) was not in the genome of most bacteria or archaea, and it gives a great result. Viral DNA integrated into the host genome, is used for the synthesis of RNA molecules specific complementary to the viral genome, which serves, in fact, vaccine. Special enzymes cut the viral genome in the place of attachment of the RNA and thus kill the virus. To support your own immune system – buy IRS 19, Cyanocobalamin injection, Selank, Metaprot, Ladasten.

Such immunity is extremely effective. But it turns on the proverbial race as soon as the virus changes in the relevant part of the genome, it becomes resistant to the vaccine. And in order to restore the immune system, the host must borrow new fragments of the modified viral genome. Since it is such a fundamental (as it is based on a central principle in biology - the complementarity of nucleic acid) form of the arms race.

There are other ways to fight. Many viruses are developing special, so to speak, protective funds. In particular, viruses are very often there are some proteins that are adapted to the immune system and prevent it. Very often it happens that the virus grabs host defense system component and also uses against her. This component is changed and no longer work, but is perceived as working. And so the virus as it puts the master stick in the wheel. This is a very common phenomenon. This arms race leads to a variety of viruses and host defense system. This is the most important factor generating diversity in the process of evolution.

It is obvious that some viruses adapt to the immune system and continue to struggle, and some are losers. But we know nothing about these species that existed millions of years ago, but did not pass the way of evolution. However, we can reconstruct some ancestral forms, which left offspring that have survived to the present day.

Survival Strategies of Virus

It is important to understand that when we talk about viruses, we talk about things that are inevitable for any evolving system of the coevolution of hosts and parasites. And then we must understand that the ultimate goal of all viruses and parasites is by no means the death of the host. That device, which is optimized in the course of evolution has nothing to do with the murder of the owner. The virus only seeks to multiply quickly and efficiently, and this ability is improved in the course of its evolution. In fact, for it is better never to kill the hosts for the virus it would have been best to its owners were happy that he could multiply particularly effective. But here's the problem for the virus that these objectives - effective propagation and preservation of the life of the owner - often come to a contradiction. And in fact, many viruses are "moderate" way of life and will never kill the owners. To do this they have to decrease the intensity of reproduction.

Another strategy is to multiply the maximum, and when the owner dies, move to another. The advantage of this or that strategy depends on environmental sustainability. If the parasite can "predict" that the population of the host will be stable and will exist for millions of years, then kill him in any case not necessary. If, however, a high probability of some disasters, which in any event will drive the host population to zero, then it should be used as quickly as possible and move to other populations. I must say that some viruses have evolved in such a way as to combine both of these strategies.

In the course of evolution in viruses, there were other ways to survive. They can build their genome into a host cell and thus to live. However, when something bad is threatening its existence, the virus is activated, goes out of his sleepy state, killing the host and moves to another. Generally speaking, in the course of evolution have won just those parasites, which are able to combine the two mentioned strategies. This is the ability to properly allocate their bets in the casino. And it is very important to understand that the death of the owner or his grave condition in any case is not something beneficial to the parasite. This is a side effect of its activities.

Viruses and the Evolution

Reproduction of viruses usually do not bode well for individual organisms. While on the other hand, the viruses may induce immunity. There were even attempts to cure cancer by using viruses. But in general, in the course of the evolution of parasites and viruses play a huge role, without them there is no and there will be no life. And the whole history of life - a history of co-evolution of parasites interact with the host. And home to increase complexity, improving the immune system would not be possible without the constant interaction with the parasite. In particular, it is possible mathematically to show that the emergence of multicellular organisms is stimulated in many ways it is protected from viruses. Multicellular becomes advantageous when cells are attacked by the virus: advantageous when one cell assumes the stroke and using mechanisms of programmed cell death can kill themselves and others to rid of the virus. And many other tools that exist in cellular organisms, or associated with protection from viruses, or genetic material, which is the owner receives from the virus.

One can cite the following example. There are quite a well-known enzyme called telomerase - this is an enzyme that stabilizes our chromosomes, as it ensures that they do not become shorter. This is essential for the survival of the organism, and enzyme activity is due both to aging and cancer. And initially, at the dawn of eukaryotes, this is the telomerase was nothing like the reverse transcriptase, which is in early eukaryotes was part of one of the mobile genetic elements. And we must always remember that our own genome where a two-thirds or a little less composed of remnants of mobile genetic elements. Most people believe that this is a useless junk, but so many of them that many of them are used for all sorts of needs. Thus, the evolution of the hosts never free from parasites and a lot of them take.

Evolution and classification of viruses

In 1971, the great American scientist David Baltimore proposed to classify viruses, depending on the type of genomic nucleic acid - DNA or RNA. The type of virus, according to this classification, it determines the reproduction cycle. But the nature of these classes are distributed very unevenly. If we look at what types of viruses infect different organisms get an interesting picture. In bacteria and archaea, the vast majority - are viruses containing double-stranded DNA. A eukaryotic predominate RNA viruses, of which there is fantastic variety. The reasons for these differences are very interesting, but well understood only in a few cases. For example, large DNA-containing viruses can not be propagated in plants, there are not only survive and are present in algae. In higher plants, their place is taken by the RNA-containing viruses. That concept is just recess defines, apparently, the differences in the propagation of viruses. But it is not always possible to accurately grasp.

Evolution of immunity

Talking about the evolution of immunity can be very long, but it is important to understand some very important things. Everyone knows that the replication of the genetic material is based on the complementarity of nucleic acids. And, accordingly, important immune system is also based on this principle. In particular, it is possible to take a piece of RNA and it is suitable for recognition. It is a powerful weapon against someone else, the parasite, such as viral genomes. But where to take this unique protective nucleic acid? From the genome of the parasite. This can be done in different ways. For example, in eukaryotes, generally, cutting occurs RNA virus genome into small pieces and then some of these bits is used to identify a unique location in the genome of the parasite and destroy it using nuclease enzyme, which is included in the complex. This is a simple and elegant principle.

However, when the infection goes away, the process is terminated, and vaccination is not happening. And the next step is to provide a vaccine. That is what makes the CRISPR system. She pays for it is quite a big complex and the possibility of autoimmune reactions. Nevertheless, it is well suited to ensuring that store information about the parasite. It includes elements of the genome of another in their own DNA - this is the basic principle of CRISPR system functioning. And this powerful principle is to utilize complementary nucleic acids, the same principle of replication in order to separate from its foreign and destroy it. This method, which is used by all organisms. The second method is that its recognition is carried out by means of another and specific proteins - this is what makes our immune system using receptors on cells which recognize the virus and soluble antibody. In general, all the way immune in a global sense - is the recognition of his and others', and the protection of his destruction of another. And in the process of evolution is carried huge number of different ways.

In the future, the complete destruction of viruses is neither necessary nor possible. But the destruction of human diseases that are caused by them, such as smallpox and polio - this is the current reality and clear purpose. These are viruses that are dead end of evolution and at the same time kill the host - they really can and should be eliminated. Against the major viral diseases have a good vaccine, except for rapidly changing viruses such as influenza or HIV. In other cases, the vaccines are working quite well. Many studies conducted in the field of fast-changing and unpredictable virus. Scientists are trying to understand how to predict the evolution of these viruses in the microscale and get effective vaccines. The end of this work to wait yet. The big problem is not so much in the newly emerging viruses, how many come from different distant places, such as Zika virus.