The great illusion of the consciousness

Psychologist talks about studies of visual perception experiments U. Neisser and various phenomena of blindness. What is the essence of the great illusion of consciousness? Why do we think we see and hear everything that happens around us? What in fact we do not see, and why?

The great illusion of consciousness - a topic that in recent decades, from the very beginning of the XXI century, actively discuss and psychologists, and physiologists and philosophers. The gist of it is that we are convinced, if we observe perceive much more than it actually is. It seems to us that we see and hear everything that happens around us. This conviction is precisely the great illusion of consciousness, which are trying to understand everything.

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In psychology, this kind of phenomenon started to learn about the 70-ies. They appeared as a byproduct of experiments in an entirely different field, it was again the study of the visual perception of human visual attention, which spent a psychologist at Cornell University Ulric Neisser - one of the founders of such areas as cognitive psychology, the psychology of cognitive processes. He studied with his students and postgraduates situation, when a person sees before him two superposed film, and he is asked to keep track of them while ignoring the other.

A common mistake regarding exactly what we perceive is called the "blindness to repeat." We typically do not notice repetition visual object if it occurs within a specified time interval, or if the object is located in the space next to the one that we have just seen. Actually, that is why in modern text editors emphasize the repetition of the word necessarily exactly the same red line as a spelling error, to make the object one.

Schizophrenia (Split Mind)

What are the treatments for schizophrenia (split mind) are used in modern medicine that comes with the feeling I am a patient and who suffered from the great composers of the disease.

Schizophrenia - a mental illness in which the patient loses the unity of psychic functions: thinking, emotions, motility. The name of the disease comes from the Greek σχίζω ( «split») and φρήν ( «mind") and is associated with dissociation of psychic functions, the underlying disease. Schizophrenia manifests neurotic, delusional and hallucinatory disorders and personality changes - decrease in mental activity and emotional impoverishment. As an independent disease of schizophrenia for the first time singled out the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin in the early XX century.

The manifestations of schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is extremely diverse in its manifestations. There are continuously ongoing and paroxysmal form. Central among continuous forms takes youthful malignant schizophrenia. This form of the disease occurs in puberty, ie during puberty boys and manifests the fall of mental activity and the fading of emotional reactions. Other continuous form - paranoid schizophrenia, which manifests itself delusional disorders and hallucinations. Among the forms of continuous current release also creeping schizophrenia, in which dominated shallow neurotic disorders and mild pronounced personality changes. Neurotic disorders with slow schizophrenia can manifest obsessions, depersonalization phenomena, in which the patient feels a split of the self, the patient doubt its existence in the real world, or a sense of loss of feelings for loved ones.

Sometimes schizophrenia occurs in the form of attacks. In some cases, it is favorable recurrent schizophrenia, where, along with mild bouts of remission occur, during which the patient retains his social status does not lose feelings for someone you know is almost healthy person. In other cases, with attack-like progressive schizophrenia, there is a wide variety of attacks, and personality changes are more pronounced than in the recurrent course.

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Modern methods of treatment of the Split Mind

The boundaries of the spread of schizophrenia are determined in connection with the position held by one or another school of psychiatry. While in some countries recognized diagnosis creeping schizophrenia, in other cases, these are regarded as psychopathy or accentuation of personality; while some psychiatrists recognize the existence of paroxysmal forms of schizophrenia, while others regard them as atypical manic-depressive psychosis, or third - endogenous disease. Due to the different views on the border of schizophrenia suffering from this disease in the United States it is much less than in many European countries.

The main method of treatment of patients with schizophrenia - psychopharmacology. In 50-ies of XX century there were drugs that are effective for the treatment of a psychosis, and other manifestations of the disease. One of the first psychopharmacological agents were domestic product "Aminazin", then circle expanded products, and there were tools such as "Stelazin" and "Haloperidol", and more recently widespread "Zyprexa", "Rispolept", "Seroquel". There was also a wide range of antidepressants that act on different types of depression - "Amitriptyline", "Melipraminum" "Remeron" and others. To prevent recurrence, using the so-called maintenance therapy, which is needed to maintain remission in the state, which was achieved during hospitalization. Psychotherapy also has a place in the treatment of schizophrenia. psycho-correction method is also widespread.

Patients with schizophrenia are often afraid to admit if they have some kind of mental disorder. But from the point of view of medicine schizophrenia is treated the same as all the other diseases that require appropriate treatment. Rehabilitation in psychiatry is an integral part of the treatment, and is a long and laborious process, the participants of which, along with the patient advocate, psychiatrists, psychologists, psychotherapists, social workers, occupational therapists. Rehabilitation measures are differentiated depending on the forms of the disease, the degree of patient safety, as well as the type of mental health care: hospital, semi-permanent, outpatient.

Causes of schizophrenia

There are various hypotheses of schizophrenia etiology: biological, social, psychological, and even environmental. These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, and can be causes of schizophrenia in a simultaneous effect of different etiologic factors - for example, genetic predisposition, combined with the action of a virus at the stage of fetal development. Most researchers believe that schizophrenia - a disease with a genetic predisposition, which is implemented under the influence of environmental factors: toxic, infectious, hypoxic, psychogenic. The disease can be hereditary, but this is optional. It all depends on the genetic mosaic. But to date, predict whether a child is sick with schizophrenia or not, it is practically impossible. Genetic counseling that exist today are far from the truth. Patients often people are born healthy children, which may differ in certain particulars, but no more. Conversely, there are many cases where parents have a completely healthy child is born with mental peculiarities.

When scientists have only begun to describe this disease, they called it plural-glandular failure and drew attention to the violation of the endocrine system. If the patient is suffering from schizophrenia starts to gain weight rapidly, it is regarded as a sign of the adverse effects on the endocrine system. Some patients begin to gain weight, others lose weight. Change sexual function when the libido disappears or drastically reduced, disrupted menstrual cycle in women. However, no abnormality of the heart is usually not observed.
Psychiatry knows a lot of cases, when patients with schizophrenia live a normal life, including professional and creative, and sometimes people were outstanding in their field. Suffice it to recall Vsevolod Garshin, Constantine Batiushkov, Knut Hamsun, and many other outstanding writers, artists Edvard Munch, Paul Cezanne, Vincent Van Gogh, the composer Robert Schumann, pianist Glenn Gould. Typically, schizophrenia is not construed as an engine of creativity. But scientists believe that the disease often develops in initial talent.

Mechanisms of regulation of emotions

Psychologist Dr. Doping talks about phobias, suppression of emotions and cognitive re-evaluation of the situation. What are the strategies we use to influence their own state? Which of these strategies are most effective? What can cause avoidance of negative emotions?

Regulation of emotions is a set of mental processes that strengthen, weaken or kept at the same level intensity and quality of the emotional reactions and states rights. Modern researcher emotion regulation Stanford scientist James Gross proposes to consider the regulation of emotions as a process, that is, the deployment of regulatory efforts in time, and as a property, that is, the individual characteristics that are inherent in a given individual in the regulation of emotional states.

People controlled by selecting and to some extent to control those situations that allow you to achieve any positive emotions or avoid the negative. In this sense, we manage to some extent our lives. What is the problem seen? Avoiding negative emotions to which we aspire all individuals leads to the fact that the start to avoid a large number of situations, and this is the way to abuses, which in clinical psychology and psychiatry are called phobias. That is to avoid the situations that cause fear, to the detriment of some purposeful behavior aimed at achieving some long-term goals.

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There is a large part of the people who are experiencing negative emotions, trying to pretend that nothing happens. And they do it in relation to themselves and to other individuals. As far as functional for the person this strategy? On the one hand, indeed, sometimes negative emotions destroy or disrupt some targeted processes that do not disrupt important. On the other hand, suppressed emotions, as studies show, remain in the body. That is, people who do not express their emotions, experiencing them at the same time show high physiological reactivity. Suppression of emotion does not eliminate the physiological response, it remains at the same level, and thus, the physiological reaction that can not be expressed externally, is a factor of psychosomatic disorders.

Post-traumatic dysregulation of emotions

Psychologist Dr. Doping talks about mental anesthesia, trauma flashbacks and played back in the relationship. By what criteria is diagnosed post-traumatic stress? What kind of PTSD researchers isolated? As a person is experiencing post-traumatic dysregulation of emotions?

Post-traumatic stress disorder occurs only in some people. Depending on the type of trauma in 8-50% have been subjected to the influence of traumatic stressors then develops post-traumatic disorder. There is a view that PTSD is a disorder of emotion regulation.

People experiencing very strong pressure of traumatic images, including the so-called "flashbacks". Flashback - is involuntary revival of a traumatic way, as if the person is again in the traumatic situation with all the sounds and smells. It is felt by all senses. The experience of these images leads to an increase in anxiety and fear, as people came out of the injury with the conviction that these emotions can not survive.

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As the post-processed trauma anxiety is in interpersonal relationships? When the alarm goes up, they have a tendency to get support from a partner (if we're talking about the relationship of affection). There is a constant desire to be with a partner, sharing their condition, leading to the provocation of conflicts. As a rule, distanced partner to save himself.

Auditory hallucinations

Neuroscientist said about the mechanisms of occurrence of hallucinations, the latest views on their nature and the use of neuro-imaging to study this phenomenon.

Hallucination - a perception in the absence of an external stimulus, which has the quality of a real perception. Hallucinations may occur at all levels of the senses: auditory, visual, tactile and even olfactory. The most common type of hallucination is a situation, when a person "hears voices". This is, so-called, auditory hallucinations. They often occur in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Hallucinations-level view also arise in connection with pathologies. Although schizophrenia are less common, visual hallucinations are often associated with neurological disorders and dementia.

Definition

Although auditory hallucinations are usually associated with psychiatric disorders such as bipolar disorder, they are not always associated with the disease. In some cases, hallucinations may be caused by lack of sleep. The extract of cannabis and stimulants can also cause disorder of perception in some people. Experimentally proved that sensory deprivation can also cause hallucinations. In 1960, experiments were conducted (which would now be not carried out for ethical reasons), during which people were kept in dark rooms without sound and sensory stimuli. As a result, people began to see and hear different things. So that hallucinations can occur in healthy people and in psychiatric patients.

Hallucinations research has been going on for quite some time. Psychiatrists and psychologists are trying to understand the causes and phenomenology of auditory hallucinations for about a hundred years, even longer. In the last thirty years we can use neuro-imaging to try to understand what happens in the brain when people are experiencing auditory hallucinations. Now we can use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or positron emission tomography (PET), to be considered part of the brain that are activated when people are experiencing auditory hallucinations. These studies have helped psychology and psychiatry to develop a model of auditory hallucinations in the brain, mainly related to the function of language and speech.

The mechanisms of auditory hallucinations

Some studies show that when patients experience auditory hallucinations, hear voices that is, the site of the brain called Broca's area becomes more active. This zone is located in the lower front part of the brain responsible for speech production. When you say working Broca's area. One of the first who investigated this phenomenon were Professor Philip McGuire and Suha Shergil from King's College London. They showed that Broca's area was more active in their patients at a time when they experienced auditory hallucinations, than when they did not hear voices. This suggests that the auditory hallucinations produced by those parts of the brain that are responsible for speech and language. This led to the creation of "models of inner speech" auditory hallucinations. When we have something we think we reproduce inside it, that is the inner voice, "articulate" our thinking. For example, when we think, "What did I eat for dinner?" Or "What will the weather be tomorrow?", We generate and activate the inner speech Broca’s area .

Chris Frith and other scholars have suggested that when we enter into the process of thinking and inner speech, our Broca's area sends a signal in our auditory cortex area called "Wernicke's area". This signal contains information that we perceive it and generated by us. This is due to the fact that the signal supplied mutes cortical sensory nerve activity, so it is less activated than by external stimuli, such as what you someone says. This model is known as a model of self-monitoring, and it suggests that people with auditory hallucinations are deficient in the monitoring process, which is why they can not distinguish between domestic and external speech. Although at present the proof of this theory somewhat weak, it is definitely one of the most influential neurocognitive models of auditory hallucinations in the last twenty or thirty years.

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The effects of hallucinations

About 70% of patients with schizophrenia in one degree or another hear voices. Sometimes the voices "react" to the medication, sometimes not. Usually, though not always, the voices have a negative impact on the lives and health of people. For example, people who hear voices, but do not respond to treatment may be at risk of committing suicide. Sometimes the voices are calling them harm themselves. Even if the present domestic situation, we can understand how hard it is constantly hear voices saying derogatory and insulting things.

However, it would be an oversimplification to say that the only people with mental disorders suffer from auditory hallucinations. Moreover, these voices are not always negative. There is a very active "Society Hearing Voices" led by Marius Romm and Sandra Escher. This movement shows the positive aspects of the votes and fights with their stigmatization. Many people who hear voices, active and live a happy life. Therefore, we must be careful to assume that voice is always bad, because it is not. They are often associated with an aggressive, paranoid and disturbing behavior of the mentally ill, but this behavior can be the result of emotional distress, and not for the votes. Perhaps not so surprisingly, anxiety and paranoia, which are often the core of mental illness, manifested in the content of what people hear.

It is worth noting that there are a lot of people without psychiatric diagnosis, reporting that they hear voices. For these people, the voice can be a positive experience, because they soothe them, or even sent to a life. Professor Iris Sommer from the Netherlands studied this phenomenon. She found a group of healthy people, who hear voices. They describe their voices as being a positive, useful and gives confidence.

Treatment of hallucinations

People with a diagnosis of "schizophrenia" is usually treated with antipsychotic drugs. These drugs block the postsynaptic dopamine receptors in the brain area called the striatum. Antipsychotic drugs are effective for many patients. As a result, their use in psychotic symptoms somewhat weaker, particularly auditory hallucinations and delusions. However, the symptoms of many patients do not respond to antipsychotic drugs. Approximately 25-30% of patients, hearing voices, drugs have almost no influence. At antipsychotic drugs also have serious side effects, so not all patients with these drugs are suitable.

As for the other treatments, there are many non-drug intervention options. The degree of effectiveness also varies. For example, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for the treatment of psychosis more controversial, since a lot of researchers believe that it has little effect on the symptoms and the overall outcome. There are types of CBT, designed specifically for patients who hear voices. These therapies usually focus on changing the patient's relationship to the voice that he was perceived as less negative and unpleasant. The effectiveness of this treatment in question.

At the moment I am study at King's College London, during which we will try to find out if we can teach patients to regulate neuronal activity in the auditory cortex. This is achieved by using "reverse neuronal communication with fMRI in real time." To measure the signal coming from the auditory cortex using MRI scanner. This signal is then sent back to the patient via a visual interface, which the patient must learn to control (i.e. to move the arm up and down). It is expected that we will be able to teach patients, hearing voices, monitor the activity of their auditory cortex, which may allow them to better monitor the vote. Researchers still are not sure whether this method is clinically effective, but in the next few months will already be available to some preliminary data.

The prevalence in the population

About 24 million people worldwide are living with a diagnosis of "schizophrenia", and about 60-70% of them at some point heard voices. There is evidence that 5 to 10% of people without a psychiatric diagnosis in some point of their lives heard voices. Most of us ever thought that someone calls us by name, and then it turned out that no one is near. So there is evidence that the hallucinations may be accompanied by schizophrenia and other mental illnesses. Auditory hallucinations are more common than we think, but to name the exact epidemiological statistics difficult.

The most famous person to hear voices, was Joan of Arc. From modern history we can recall Syd Barrett, founder of the group Pink Floyd, who suffered from schizophrenia and heard voices. However, many people with no psychiatric diagnosis hear voices, but take them very positively. They can draw in the voices of inspiration for art. Some, for example, are experiencing musical hallucinations. This may be something of a bright auditory images, and maybe they just kind of - these people are very clearly hear the music in my head. Scientists are not quite sure whether it is possible to equate to hallucinations.

Open questions

Science currently has no clear answer to the question of what happens in the brain when a person hears voices. Another problem is that researchers do not yet know why people perceive them as foreign, coming from an external source. It is important to try to understand the phenomenological aspect of what people feel, to hear the voice. For example, when people get tired or take stimulants, they may experience hallucinations, but not necessarily perceive them as coming from external sources. The question is why people lose their sense of self-activity, when they hear voices. Even if we believe that the cause of auditory hallucinations in the excessive activity of the auditory cortex, why did people believe them speaks the voice of God, or a secret agent, or aliens? It is also important to understand the belief systems that people build around their votes.

The content of auditory hallucinations and its source - another issue: whether these voices come from inner speech or whether it is stored memories? With confidence we can say is that this sensory experience includes the activation of the auditory cortex in speech and language areas. It does not tell us anything about the emotional content of these votes, which can often be negative. This in turn implies that the brain can cause a problem when processing emotional information. Furthermore, two people are very different experience hallucinations, which means that the brain mechanisms involved can be quite different.

Some words about Neurogenesis

Neuroscientist Dr. Doping talks about memory mechanism and editing of memories

About the reasons for the backlog of western science

We do not have time for western technological shifts, we do not have time to just buy them. Making good on a new financing in Russia is almost impossible, it takes years and years. Just beyond any device that can be used right now jump forward in the study - we can not even order, because we have no publications on this topic, we apply for a grant - they say, "And nothing has been done." And refuse the money. In the West, the situation is different. It provides that for the new, radically new, are large sums.

And we actually do not have such a system. For basic science it is not. Everybody wants some application, to develop technology based on fundamental knowledge already received. But they also need to get. To do this, a fundamentally new equipment, which appears only in the West, and everything is moving on it. Our article is not that we do not accept, but with very great reluctance and not in the best journals. As long as we are able in some areas, in particular related to memory, to hold for a year or two behind, a slight delay, and in some areas, I know, already lagging behind for decades.

The mechanism of memory

We learn something, remember not only for weeks, but for years and decades. We remember that it was 10-20 years ago. With using what? Must be some kind of material carrier, and the carrier material in the brain - a protein. A protein molecule is formed, but after two or three days, it is metabolized, is replaced by a similar but new. And communication line up again on some pattern that is encoded in our genetic apparatus. It turns out that the memory can not be kept, because all the molecules are destroyed, if some new emerged, they too will be destroyed. So must be the maintenance of the mechanism of formation of the same molecules in the same places, ie, must be binding to a place in the nervous system. Normally, this contact between the nerve cells. And these trillions of contacts. We have billions of nerve cells, and each of these tens of thousands of links. It is necessary to support a locally-selective, and the brain is able to do so.

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In recent years, it seems to have discovered a molecular cascade that is self-sustaining. That is, yes, a protein molecule in two or three days is replaced with a new, but they are altered as a result of the amount of training in the exact locations remain unchanged. That is our memory. It seems to have found a molecule that is associated with memory. Experiments were very simple: when exactly this molecule selectively reduced in numbers, the behavior is absolutely nothing has changed: wonderful fed animal, jump, run - anything, except for one - she faded memory of certain events. So far, this "removable" memory associated with the hazardous events - negative memory, shock hit the animal - that this memory can be, it appears, to erase selectively by introducing blockers for this protein is in this area. There's a problem in the selective delivery.

About editing of memories

Now there is a shaft of the work in this area. Well, we are also involved in this. And the problem is that the memory has been very dynamic process - it can, in fact, be changed, it can disappear and re-recorded. And it seems that it is possible to understand how it's done. Several hypotheses exist that can be selectively very locally erase the memory or vice versa it there somehow put. It will be extremely interesting, it will be a big jump in general throughout physiology. We have trillions of connections, and you want to change only a few hundred of them, selectively, the rest do not touch. Nature knows how to do it, we do not yet know how.

There may be a technological breakthrough. Now there are some very interesting studies nanoplatforms with nano-delivery. If we can solve the problem with the delivery of the election, then perhaps it will be possible as well, do not form a memory, as an old erase memory. This can be done if the technology delivery problem will be solved.

About funding for young scientists

The main program is focused on the Skolkovo technology. But now there is Skolkovo Institute of Technology, which provides grants for basic research is. And if there is a theme associated with the brain, we hope that we will be able to obtain financing, because there are world-class working environment, and you can pay people wages, for which they can currently provide housing. And for young people is a critical issue. Those young professionals who do not have housing in Moscow are forced to leave, just forced.

But in general, the desire to leave "for good" somehow weakened, and it shows. But, in fact, is not very surprising, interesting people to work. And the Academy of Sciences allows you to buy interesting new equipment in recent years. In millions of dollars, you can buy new plants. Young people are very willing to work, and we go abroad, but for two or three months a year. We bring out new technologies, new approaches, plans for cooperation, new ideas. Actually, it works all the foreign world. They always go for some time in other countries. In America, it is even a prerequisite: once in three years need a year to go to a completely different lab, in any case can not stay at home, it is a necessary condition in order that there was an exchange of ideas, technologies and ideas. We do not have this, unfortunately, but we leave the situation in other ways.

About study of memory

Subject memory historically Ivan Pavlov in Russia was very fashionable, popular and taught very well so far. In this area, I taught a course, I know very well that the Russian preparations in this area - it is one of the best in the world, because we have a very big tradition, and all the literature - in Russian. In English it is very small, oddly enough. There are individuals engaged in such research, and of whole courses, such information which is in Russian - probably in America can be found, while in other countries it is already problematic. And so in this regard the opinion of Russian scientists is very appreciated, because everyone understands that a great story, school research behind it.

And then, in the memory is still no technological breakthrough, by which Western scientists could jump forward. there was a hypothesis about a particular molecular cascade in the past few years. But it is possible to investigate, and not using technology very seriously. We at the institute are working on the level of Western scholars unpublished data, we closely communicate with them, and while they have not yet published the publication, we have similar work is going.

About Student Mobility

The structure of the living body has not changed. Textbooks Biology 30s, 60s, 70s are very good. And in all biological universities teaching is the classic textbooks. Quality is more dependent on teachers. If a good team, the well-prepared students. Plus, now there is a huge opportunity on the internet to get almost any information.

That's pretty obvious, is that students are not from Moscow and St. Petersburg are not so well-educated. They have a very good knowledge in a narrow range, which, for example, was the reason for professors are very good. Talents have anywhere on the planet. But the narrowness of some education - it is present. That is, they simply do not know about the existence of so many modern things. For some reason, yet still do not use the Internet. That's the only difference I noticed. But gaining breadth of thinking they are literally half a year.

We now have such an international graduate school is supported by the European Council program for the exchange of graduate students in Russia. They can go on an internship in any institutions of higher learning in the two to three months. Such a program, unfortunately, is not supported by the Ministry of Education and supported by reason, by the European Council. But it is limited in time, next year it ends, even though it was very effective. For a small number of students, again due to financial constraints, they paid trip in almost all universities in Russia and abroad, including in Europe. You could go for two or three months to see what they were doing, to learn new technologies and to come back to him. To have people on the ground with a wide range of view, with a broad education. Such a program, it seems to me, need for Russia.

About old and new school textbooks

In older textbooks on biology were quite correctly described information. And in the new times, I do not know why it is done and for what purpose, the material is presented in such a way that it is almost impossible to understand, much less then tell. That is actually a tutorial focused on the answers to specific questions, it is focused on the exam, and not on an understanding of biology. Biology is different from the physics of the chemistry that is necessary to understand the overall interaction of all systems. Live, it is quite another. Biologists, doctors - they are always a little different look on the body, a living creature, unlike physicists who see a set of parts. New textbooks that point of view, in my opinion, do not give. But super-talented person probably does not matter. He will still find more literature.

But for the average student who may not be very much wants to specialize in biology - it is very difficult. They remember some fragmentary data. I was faced with this: a holistic view of the living organism, some students simply do not have.

About the difference between the physicians and biologists

Do physicians and biologists have a serious difference: the physician should be that all was normal, but the biologist norm just is not needed. The biologist must unbalance, out of the norm, and then he will see what's inside the body.

The purpose of the biologist is to understand how the body, what are the mechanisms. The goal of physicians is to maintain normal. And the difference in order to effect a little. But, nevertheless, biologists, and physicians perceive a man and any animal as a single creature. And the environment, and everything around us, all the incentives, all the animal state, are able to evaluate it as a whole.

About the search for ideas and neurocomputers

I have seen, unfortunately, it is the opinion of physicists, that the idea can be explored. The proposals were such grants were such. But it is impossible to explore the idea, because the thought does not exist in our bodies, in our brains, it is not. It is our metaphorical understanding of what is happening there. You see, awarding processes in the brain in such an epithet and then trying to explore the epithet - all this is doomed to failure automatically. Because it is necessary to explore what exists is material, in full conjunction with all others.

Yes, the neurons are activated upon receipt of information, but the very concept of the idea - it is a purely abstract concept. She's not there, so look for it there is meaningless and posed as a problem especially. Sometimes it is very difficult, because in biology, especially neuroscience, and people come from the physical and mathematical background. And there is a problem, there is a difference in views. Those neurocomputers - it is quite fashionable. But neurocomputers generally unrelated to the brain do not have. This is purely a fashionable term, they tried, to simulate the brain, but then came up with a completely new principles, which are not in our brain. These studies resulted in a slightly different principles of conventional computer equipment.

About recognition of odors

Research of physicists, mathematicians, based more on their perceptions of the brain, rather than on real biological data. A classic example - it is arranged as a recognition of odors. It was believed that the recognition of smells exactly the same answer millions of neurons in the primary receptor areas, and only about a thousand centers, where information converges. Scientists have tried to make and model of the device for detecting very weak odors (eg, explosive molecules in the air and so on) based on the structure of the system. Very large sums of money have been released for it in America.

The device did not work, and in 1998 published data, in fact everything is arranged. It turns out that all of these millions of neurons are divided into thousands of types, and each type are uniformly distributed, they all send processes at one point, thousands of these dots. The fact that the millions of neurons in the receptor epithelium updated every 30-35 days, constantly emerging new processes and sends information to processing centers. It is genetically encoded, and each new neuron independently finds its way to your process. This principle is no one even suggested, it was seen purely morphologically. And then we understand how the coding of odors. Really simple, effective way of coding, which was not predicted by anyone. Nature, she's always one step ahead.

About human and animal memory

Apparently, the main mechanisms of memory are absolutely the same. Moreover, to everyone's surprise, it turned out that the basic molecules that are involved in the most critical moment of the memory lock, were super conservative. Do snails and humans the same basic molecule by 98%. Apparently, evolution has occurred in the selection of the most effective mechanisms, and so they survived. Differences are already in the system as it is connected. If the same snail is the simplest version of the 3-4 elements, then it is 3-4 million a person, and a lot more options. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms have been super conservative.

In some animals, such as insects appeared in special molecular evolution. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms, like, like, too. For example, the same neurotransmitters, i.e. substances released by neurons to communicate with each other. Classic only about 40, and they are the same in structure in all animals. They have the most lower organized animals and we have added only protein influence. Proteins much greater variability. And it acquired the qualities that a person has, in contrast to other animals. Already by combinatorics, of the same elements, you can create a completely different system.

Actovegin - for what the drug is prescribed? Application in medicine

"Some names of drugs on everyone's lips. No exception and for "Actovegin", for what is prescribed and when this drug is used, knows most of the population. And for the ignorant readers will not prevent a small digression, which will help to fill this gap.

A small list of possible pregnancy complications.

The target audience of the product – pregnant women. These beautiful 40 weeks for someone may seem like a living hell, not all pregnancies are equally good. There are the unpleasant symptoms, including:

• Constant nausea, especially in the morning.
• Persistent changes in taste preferences. It can go up to the land of desire to eat, izv¸stku, scheb¸nku
• Swelling throughout the body, especially the lower limbs are affected. There is already the case in the anatomy and hemodynamics - especially blood.
• General weakness and malaise. Often accompanied by the development of depression and unstable state of mind.

In fact, the list goes on for a long time, some problems will face each woman, with only the other "lucky". The fact is that from the moment of fertilization in the mother qualitative and quantitative changes begin to occur.

Just imagine how difficult the person is arranged. A pregnant body needs 10 obstetric months to fully reproduce this masterpiece of nature.

To perform this task mobilize all internal resources, sometimes the mother is still too little hard in this distribution.

Can we count on the normal pregnant state of health and the absence of serious manifestations? Yes, have enough:

• A good heredity. Genetics plays a huge role in the development of any violations.
• The ability to deal with their health.
• Enough free time to relax and not to overload themselves with work.
• Do not interfere, even to visit the antenatal clinic and get advice from your doctor. But not everything depends on the person, on some points we in any way can not affect.

If the state has already arisen, requiring urgent medical intervention, it is better not to delay this. All products designed for pregnant women undergo many clinical studies and all sorts of checks to scientists could ensure their quality. The fines, lawsuits, bankruptcy - no company is interested in such an outcome.

What will benefit pregnant?

More often than not in the list of appointments for pregnant women can be seen:

Restorative therapy:

• Vitamin preparations. Overdoing is difficult, but the lack of these substances can lead to serious abnormalities in the child. Especially in the development of the musculoskeletal and nervous systems.
• Relaxing and therapeutic massage. In full it is difficult or impossible to perform, but you can have a distracting attention.
• Iodomarin with micro and macro elements in a pregnant woman can also be things are not so smooth. Therefore it is necessary to appoint agents, to help restore metabolic balance and exclude the possible pathology: both the mother and in the newborn.

Specific drugs:

• Cardioprotectors - substances that are acting on the heart muscle, reduces the risk of cardiovascular pathologies. An important stage in the preparation of pregnant women for childbirth.
• Actovegin. It has a beneficial effect on the circulatory system, not only the mother but also the fetus. His security had to show for years of use.
• Angiotensin drugs. High blood pressure still remains a serious problem for any obstetrician. Specially designed for pregnant funds have a more gentle effect on the entire body. After all, any abrupt pressure drop could be a disaster for the new little life. "Labetalol" and "Metnuldopo" to help cope with hypertension.

In which cases, prescribe "Actovegin"

So far, we have found that Actovegin is appointed pregnant. It remains only to find out when it can appoint:

If a history of miscarriage. Previous adverse outcomes of pregnancy is not an absolute measure of the appointment of the drug, but it is better to be safe. To this time the tragedy does not happen again, and nothing happened.

• After examining the "Doppler". This research is carried out in a planned manner in the later stages of pregnancy. According to the patient's request it can be done at an earlier stage to ensure that the blood flow is normal. If it is not - a reason to start taking appropriate medications as quickly as possible.
• Regarding speed: emergency Actovegin is also used. The truth is administered intravenously it is already, to act more quickly and began to influence already in the first minutes after administration.
• When the diagnosis of placental insufficiency is the drug of choice. Connecting the mother and the fetus system may have flaws, the possible consequences, I think, clear. It is through the placenta child receives all the necessary nutrients.

Influence of Actovegin on the body for the pregnant woman.

The main mechanism of action associated with Actovegin effect on vascular endothelial cells. Through the influence of substances increases their resistance to oxygen starvation, which strengthens the structure of the vascular wall and improves the yield several possibilities of a pregnant woman. If in the future there will an unexpected situation that may result in fetal hypoxia, or problems with blood circulation of the mother - the body will be ready for it.

Furthermore, normal glucose uptake by cells and other nutrients from the blood increases their delivery into the vessel wall. And here the placenta? It turned out that as a nice bonus drug has a positive effect on the rate and volume of placental blood flow.

If in the system mother - fetus there any pathology, it is necessary to eliminate. For emergency Actovegin is suitable in solution into the vein, if the situation can be patient, tablets or capsules. Side effects and contraindications, as with all drugs, but they are insignificant. Mainly deal allergic conditions.

It is not necessary to prescribe a drug currently own, or for the prevention, much less for the relief of acute conditions. First, we should see a doctor to help was comprehensive and effective.

Many mothers tell their children about Actovegin preparation for what is prescribed and how it saved the life once little one. The status should be given proper attention, especially when it comes to pregnancy.

Genomic medicine - Genes

Microbiologist says about relationship between viruses and bacterias

There are some big issues that we are curious. First, we are interested in how bacteria genes work and how their work is regulated by changing the extracellular and intracellular conditions. Just like ourselves, have a lot of bacteria genes - thousands. And not all the genes work at the same time: some are disabled, some are included, and some are included only when "necessary". Moreover, not all genes are working with the same force. In general, it seems very reasonable unit of the bacterial cell. It turns out that there are many different mechanisms that provide the "right" level of gene activity. We are studying it at the molecular level how the signal is transmitted from the external environment to the intracellular machine that is responsible for it, to turn the gene at the right time.

The second question that we study, associated with coevolution of bacteria and viruses. We pledge to all the parasites that cause disease in our country, but the life of the bacteria in this sense even harder because the number of parasites that they have, enormous. On our planet, there are about 1030 viruses bacteria, it very much. And if you imagine that these viruses bacteria would be the size of a ladybug, the Earth would be covered with a layer of ladybirds swarming, going far beyond the satellites. In general, each bacterial cell on the planet for about ten viruses that could kill the cell. Nevertheless, there are bacteria thrive, as well as their viruses. Nobody dies, at least, really, because the victory, for example, the virus would be their death, because they would destroy all the bacteria they infect. In terms of the evolution of bacteria and viruses - it is a never-ending arms race. Virus "invent" some little thing that allows it to more effectively kill bacteria. Most bacteria are killed, but the selected bacteria, which are resistant to the virus, they multiply rapidly. Virus to survive, "forced to" invent a new device for the infection resistant cells. And so on without end. I am interested in the molecular mechanisms by which viruses are trying to defeat the bacteria, and the bacteria fighting viruses. This is a big topic, there are many very different directions, because in the course of evolution are a variety of solutions to this problem, anything goes, as long as it worked (and what did not work, no more, it did not survive).

The latter is an interesting topic, we connected with the relationship, in which the bacteria come together. In nature, bacteria, there are usually not in pure cultures and in complex societies. For example, in our digestive tract with you is a lot of variety of bacteria, which together form a very important body for us - intestinal microbes. The coexistence of bacterial microbiome suggests that each occupies its own particular niche out there, and is present in certain quantities. And, at least, normally one does not try to capture all the "clearing", or rather, there are mechanisms that prevent this. Bacteria "agree" to each other through chemical signals. These chemical signals - a substance secreted by a bacterium - can stimulate the growth of some bacteria and inhibit the growth of others. Usually suppress. These chemical signals, these molecules is antibiotics, that since the mid XX century used to treat bacterial infections. We are interested in questions such as, for example, "Why do decide to start producing bacteria antibiotic only at a certain stage of growth?", "How antibiotic effect on other bacteria?", "Why is the cell that produces the antibiotic, does not die from it?". Similar questions are asked by many researchers studying antibiotics, but since these substances are extremely diverse, the common answer is no, and to study individual molecules or their classes interesting, because I always find something unexpected and interesting.

We suggest to everyone use GW1516, Meldonium, Semax, Cerebrolisine and Phenotropil.

Throughout academic life I have nothing useful to any company has done: and no medication is not created and did not sell anything. On the other hand, we have learned a number of new antibacterial agents, the existence of which we have before, no one knew. Consider that we were not lucky, and these substances do not become drug. After all, to become a drug molecule is not sufficient to have an antibacterial effect. It should be non-toxic to the patient stable, cheap and so on. We do not do any of these things, and the substance with which we are working, probably not suitable as a drug for one or many of these options. On the other hand, to eliminate that from the following substances, which we are going to study, will not be of such a nature, it is impossible. A typical lottery. Example of penicillin, Fleming accidentally open, perfectly shows how great the event and the role of luck in exploratory research. After all, we learn that the original is not known, and therefore, the result is unpredictable. As soon as someone starts to say, "I have three years will make a cure for cancer, and after five years - therapy based on stem cells", which means exactly one: the speaker, or a crook who lies deliberately, to get money, or a fool who believes in what he says. But as even a fool wants to get money for their research, it is still a crook.

In biology, there is no general laws, everything is case by case. The more you can keep in your head and the more links you can find or know where to look about them, the better. In this respect, I admire bioinformatics, although they sometimes latitude is at the expense of depth and detail. The absolute requirement for a successful career in biology is a knowledge of the English language, the ability to speak and write it. It is important to be able to communicate with colleagues, to communicate to them the results and be able to take their data. It is in the course of communication can occur unexpected ideas, which are then permanently determine the direction of your work. When you're young, it is important to be good at working with your hands. That is, you can be a wonderful and smart, but if you from the hands of all falls, the laboratory will be difficult. As a rule, those people who falls from the hands of all, but they are smart, make good bioinformatics. But still, most importantly, it should be interesting. If you go to the lab and you will see what people are doing there, the actual work is a pastime would be difficult to name. They're talking, tea popyut with each other, then they are like in the TV show, wander some liquid from a large bottle into several small ones. However, the TV show is usually transfusion liquids of any toxic colors, and we are colorless, but sometimes smelly. Then there was some kind of action will make that a normal person will seem strange. And then they start to look at something on a petri dish for example, and terribly pleased, poke it with your finger and the other show. In general, a madhouse. But they do not because they get a lot of money, because the big money here does not get it, not because they want to heal the world from some terrible disease because there is no guarantee that you With luck, and because of that, it's just like it and they are interested in, because of the results of these transfusions obtain new knowledge about the world.

About bioinformatics

Over the past 15-20 years, all our science greatly changed. We all genetic programs written in the language of DNA. Long-long texts of four letters. And all these texts emerged from the same root - the genetic text, which had the last common ancestor of all living things. The diversity of life that surrounds us - the result of mistakes and inaccuracies that occurred during the copying of the source text. Imagine that was first volume of "War and Peace", then rewrote it several times, up and rewrote until having billions of copies of "War and Peace", but they have become very different, because the scribes made mistakes. There were some alien page. And some of the pages were lost. But, as all went to the same process from the original one, you can try to understand the existing diversity and communication between existing mines, searching for those typos and studying their distribution. And it is possible, for example, try to associate the presence of certain typos with altered properties (meaning in the case of "War and Peace"). Genomics provides us with an increasing number of genetic texts. Both biology, which I was taught, what is called the "wet" biology, which makes for a laboratory table, pouring a liquid, virtually powerless in the face of this avalanche of data. And here we need other people who can work with huge volumes of data, texts and compare the genetic make nontrivial predictions about the function for the texts, which are very little resemblance to each other. And these bioinformatics predictions become a starting point the hypothesis that you want to check. And it can already check us, "wet", biologists, and it is also interesting.

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