FAQ: Gender identity and adaptation

6 facts about male and female social attributes, behaviors and strategies of chromosomal anomalies

In modern science, psychology is not always shared by sex and gender identity. Very often in the literature uses the term "gender-sensitive" to denote sexual differences. However, this is not true, they should be distinguished. And when we say "man and woman", "boy and girl", "girl and boy", we mean sex differences, some biological features. These features consist of a number of characteristics. This hormonal sex and gonadal sex, and morphology, by which we can distinguish between men and women. In addition to gender identity should be allocated to gender identity. Very often sexual identity correlate with the biological sex and gender - the social. To some degree, we can accept this point of view, in order to separate these two constructs.

• 1.Problem of Social Sex

The problem of gender identity (or social floor) was most clearly put Sandra Bem, who introduced this special terms. When we talk about gender identity, we use the word "man and woman", "male and female", and when we talk about gender identity, we use the terms "masculine" and "feminine." One would focus on two of these terms and relate more masculine with masculine features and feminine - with women. But when we talk about psychological constructs, they often observe more variative picture because the mind allows a person to regulate the relations with the environment. Therefore, in addition to masculinity and femininity Sandra Bem introduces the construct, which is called "androgyny."

• 2.Androgyny and adaptation

From a medical point of view of androgyny - is the presence of some mixed signs. And from a psychological point of view it is a feature of such human characteristics, his personality, which allows him, in terms of Sandra Bem, use different strategies of behavior. She says that the androgyny allows a person to better adapt to the different circumstances of life. Pronounced masculine strategies associated with risk appetite, with the desire to be autonomous, independent, with hyperactivity, aggression and so on. Feminine strategy can be correlated with a typically feminine behavior. This desire to establish communication, be gentle, gentle, courteous, proactive, and so on. Androgynous - a type of gender identity, which corresponds to both. That is androgynous are in the spectrum of its policies both feminine and masculine strategy. It turns out that in many situations a person can update one or the other or all of the strategies together. At site DrDoping.com you can buy Complex of Cytamins for the women's health and Complex of Cytamins for the men's health.

• 3.Strategy of Adequate Behavior

Russian psychology Yenikolopov and Dvoryanchikov say that so confidently talk about how androgyny should not be unconditional basis of human adaptation to the environment, because it is important not only that the behavior of a variety of strategies, but also the ability in some particular circumstances of the update this spectrum adequate strategies. That is the one that will meet the particular situation and lead to the desired result a person. Otherwise, the man with the androgynous type of identity can be prone to confusing behavior strategies. For example, he starts laughing at a funeral, or will cry at the wedding ceremony. We can observe the roles of heterogeneity, an unsuccessful payment. It is very important to pay attention not only to the possibility of androgyny to serve as a basis to adapt, but also to explore some additional factors that can say that this is not always the case.

• 4.Communication of masculinity and femininity with adaptation

Of course, one can argue that other types of gender identity problem rather than plastic and successful as the androgynous type. It turns out that masculinity is also related to adaptation, no matter who has this type of gender identity - men or women. This universal characteristic, which provides a person successful, self-confidence, and so on. Part of this is acceptable, because the most typical characteristic of masculinity - is an activity that often appears to human way of social advancement.
But with respect to femininity no unambiguous assessment. It is believed that the femininity of a woman can be the basis of its adaptation and femininity in a man, if it is marked characteristic, can be for him some predictor or base of problem behavior, communication in relationships with other people. The thing that made men perceived as socially active, autonomous, independent, risk-averse within reasonable bounds. If a man has expressed traits of femininity that we often relate with addiction, then surely, for him it will be a problem in some fields. For improving adaptation you can use Semax, Metaprot, Afobazol, Grandaxin.

• 5.Undifferentiated identity

In addition, there is the undifferentiated type of gender identity. This is the type of people who have been reduced, and masculine and feminine traits. This issue is a separate problem, as this area of research quite limited explored fundamental science. The so-called undifferentiated identity is often correlated with traumatisation, problems in childhood. One of these potential problems - it is the failure of the newborn sex parents, for example, when parents waited for the boy and the girl was born. This rejection of the child may lead to the fact that the girl begin to educate, as a boy, and ignore or deny it feminine.
Undifferentiated identity can be one of the subjects for further study because early trauma are not always this basis. The reasons may be varied. Here is one concrete example: a woman estimates itself, so that the results of diagnostic psychologist defines her undifferentiated type of gender identity. During the conversation, it becomes clear that a woman evaluates himself so because she has a very jealous husband. Apparently, she tries in the eyes of other people look child and neutralize their feminine traits, in order not to provoke others to establish contact with her as a woman, as well as in order not to cause feelings of jealousy and other negative feelings with your husband.

• 6.Chromosomal abnormalities

In modern science, the problem of chromosomal anomalies studied by various sciences. It is an interdisciplinary field of study that combines research interests of doctors and psychologists. One of the most promising studies have been planned and carried out by employees of the Scientific Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology of the Russian Ministry of Health (dmn, prof. Uvarova EV) and the staff of the Institute of Psychology (DPN, prof. NE Harlamenkova). In particular, it has been studied a sample of girls with Shereshevsky - Turner syndrome or syndrome Svayer, chromosomal abnormalities. Girls with Turner syndrome are missing one X chromosome, while girls with the syndrome have Svayer male karyotype (46 XY chromosomes), but the female phenotype (appearance, they look like girls). Normally at birth girls with the Svayer syndrome no doubt that she is a girl.
During puberty or in Turner syndrome, or the Svayer syndrome not form secondary sexual characteristics, that is both a medical and psychological problem. At the same time physicians often lack the psychological data, because the treatment of the girls they use pharmacological hormones and proper psychological support is carried out by the doctors. However, despite the success of this psychological support, it is important to understand what changes occur in the psychology of girls in the course of treatment, like changing their view of themselves. That is why this area of research is very promising.

FAQ: Personal identity

7 facts about the issue of self-determination of modern man

In the present situation there are problems with personal identity, which were unknown for most of history.

• 1.Traditional man was deeply incorporated into their social role and social status not at odds with his ideas about himself. This was due to the fact that in past societies existed sufficiently clear metaphysical and religious picture of the world that guarantee a man his identity: he knew who he was, what he does in this world and what is its purpose. Sometimes, of course, he could be wrong, but, nevertheless, always had an idea that these issues can be resolved correctly. In addition, traditional society was relatively simple in terms of differentiation of roles - they were all united in a less complex holistic education. This does not mean that there are no examples of individualization, similar to the current situation in a traditional society. For example, individualizing biographical moment in pre-modern societies is found regularly in cases where we are dealing with increasing uncertainty and contingency of human existence. A good example of this - "Journey Beyond Three Seas" A. Nikitin, while Jan Assmann opened this story as an example of ancient Egypt. But in general, it is rather the exception, not the rule.
• 2.Modern man is for the most part does not know who he is. The resulting tension is manifested in many different ways and on different levels - from the problems of the choice of life paths to feelings of abandonment and the issue of the meaning of life. Solution of the problem of identity in contemporary culture is realized in some basic strategies. Of course, I will explain them as separate types, in real life the individual they are present in mixed form, everyone in one form or another has resorted to each of them.
  The first is a biographical strategy, under which a person defines who he is, sending itself to its past, to their own experiences, feelings and memories. It is easy to identify modern forms of implementation of this strategy. Take the Internet. Basic, advanced form of its development are the blogs and social networks: Facebook, Instagram, and so on. What it is? It is a form of building his own biography: modern man set out to preserve the historical memory of the life he lived. We can add to this endless photo in different forms, etc. Facebook, for example, feel good mood on the market, and even changes its interface, leading the so-called the Timeline, to make the user's life line clearer.
• In addition to the online forms have previously been developed fairly sophisticated technique biographical formation of personal identity: psychotherapy, diaries, memoirs - is generally any form or any area where we talk about ourselves, including elementary CV. In general, this strategy encourages individualism and the cultivation of subjectivity as a specific feature of modernity. The extensive development of this strategy in the modern world is preceded by a long prehistory, including both religious conceptions of the individual soul - Christianity has a special meaning history of personal sin - and metaphysical personalistic type of system, for example, the teaching of Socrates and Plato's immortal soul.
• 3.There is a second, quite differently formed, the type of strategies of building self-identity. This so-called participatory strategy of building a personal identity. "Participators" means "part", that is the definition itself through membership in a certain group. As part of this strategy, belonging to "their" group at the same time determines the group of "others", for example, we are men, but not women; we are adults, but not children.
• 4.Participative identity is not a single phenomenon, and is divided into two basic forms: the functional and segmentive (here I use the terminology is very thin, in my opinion, systematizer and researcher of the problem - the German sociologist Alois Khan).
  
  The functional form is associated with the base for the present process of differentiation, specialization, division of labor and so on. This is the form in which we define ourselves, such as journalists as academics or as fathers. In this case we are talking about the fact that a person belongs to a certain group that performs in the community about the same functions as him. A special feature of this identity is that people tend to be rare with the representatives of their group, and more - with the representatives of other groups: sellers meet with buyers, teachers meet with students. It is easy to see that this form of identity has a cosmopolitan character, no matter where you go, you, as a scientist or as a buyer yourself in his place in the appropriate situation, understand how you behave and what is expected of you.
• The second form of participatory identity - segmentive. This reckoning himself to a group of "friends". In today's world, there are several forms of this kind of identity: first, state, national and religious, although it may be some kind of a local community. This also can be attributed to a specific class identity as a Marxist structure.
• 5.All of these strategies are constructing identity in a fairly complex relationships. For example, with respect to segmentive identity is always a suspicion that it is bogus. However, the request to it in modern society is very high, because with functional identity in today's complex society a person experiences constant stress associated with increasing specialization and isolation: it is not just a scientist, but also for some particular subject specialist, and talk seriously about the subject it can not all scientists, but only ten in the world. In such conditions it is difficult to maintain their identity and differentiation under pressure load segmentive identity remains extremely popular. Cogitum, Piracetam, Picamilon are used for brain function improvement.
  
  Thus, modern society does not lead to a reduction or disappearance of phenomena such as nationalism or religion, but on the contrary, the movement has consistently demonstrated towards their intensification. The current situation related to the problems of religion, some scholars called the post-secular, keeping in mind that we are seeing a fairly broad return of religion in our lives, although it would seem, for this there is no reason.
• 6.The problem with personal identity today can not be solved. This is due to some structural features of modern society and the fact that the strategy I called for a complete solution inadequate. Modern man always feels that he is richer than any form of identity, to which he may have recourse, something he always remains a "man without qualities".
• 7.This situation is very clearly diagnosed, such as Karl Marx, when identified the problem of alienation. Although, in my opinion, I gave it too dramatic in connection with the proletariat. The man in today's society it is necessary to perform a certain social role, that is to have a functional identity, but he feels that this role is not confined to it. It serves a huge number of functional roles: in the morning he is a father, a passenger in the afternoon, a teacher, scholar, administrator, customer, visiting the restaurant and so on. However, a person does not feel identified so tight, to say: "Here's what I have." Wilhelm Dilthey identified the specifics of this situation as follows: "individuals are not included in the set of actions in its entirety." The crisis of personal identity - a permanent crisis of modern man.

The problem of the beginning of life in bioethics

Philosopher Dr. Doping about ethics in the new reproductive technologies, commercializing procreation and desecration of family relationships. As the use of modern fertility technology affects the integrity of the marital relationship? What is de-intimization reproductive behavior? What are the ethical implications may result in the development of new reproductive technologies?

At the end of the XX century medicine has created new opportunities for people to control their fertility. This control has become effective when the technology was developed, allowing in hormone levels affect the human reproductive function. It is to call safely and reliably control their fertility, to decide when to schedule the birth of children to relate plans to procreate with plans for study or work. These advances in medicine have led to a break between sexual and reproductive behavior. The people of the XX century childbirth was associated with less intimacy. In the literature, the term "de-intimization reproductive behavior." If earlier woman expecting a child, mainly communicated with his family, today the expectant mother goes to work, continue to communicate with virtually is completely controlled by doctors. At the beginning of the XX century the birth of the child at home without constant medical supervision of the pregnancy was considered as normal.

Annually, there are about 2 million pairs will learn that the reason for their lack of children - male infertility. For such couples may have genetic own child, technologies have been developed in vitro fertilization. It is fertilization, which occurs inside the body of his wife with her husband's sperm or donor. The second type of new reproductive technologies - in vitro fertilization technology is. For them, the use of sexual material men and women. Fertilization takes place outside the mother's body. Within 14 days, dividing the egg is maintained in a special environment, and then implanted into the body hormonally prepared females. Typically, implanted not one but several embryos.

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While surrogacy technology has been developed as a way of dealing with certain kinds of female infertility, translating this technology to commercialization - the biggest ethical problem. The fact that this technique is destroying traditional notions of fatherhood and motherhood. Who is the mother and father to us? Mother - she who has given birth, or the one who brought up? Father - the one who is genetically related to the child or brings it? By the birth of a child in a technology of surrogate motherhood may be involved in five adults: Donors sexual material customers (for example, a man and woman, in family relationships, and in many countries there are no restrictions to ensure that such technologies recourse and non-traditional couples, and single men and women), a surrogate mother to bear a child. The world already has precedents of lawsuits on the recognition of the status of parenthood.

5 books on the psychology of attention

What to read about the processes of visual attention.

Can we notice a gorilla or a girl with an umbrella on the screen during the job? What is the human attention, it is modeled, develops and changes with age? How is the "visual search"? Key works about the psychology of attention in the selection of recommended books.

• 1.Psychology of attention. Reader. / Ed. YB Gippenreiter, VY Romanova

Starting the list in this book saves me from having to add to it at least a dozen of classical works on the psychology of attention: excerpts from them, sometimes very impressive, are collected in this anthology, withstood several editions, each time with the additions. Most of the classic late XIX-early XX centuries., But what do they write beautifully! And how careful were not only effective solution of the cognitive tasks, which manifests itself attention in laboratory experiments, but also to the phenomenology - the subjective experience of the processes of attention and its diverse phenomena, ranging from absent-mindedness and ending enthusiasm and acquisitions tasks. And in both, the drafters of the editors I was lucky to learn, including - directly to the attention of experimental psychology. And not without their influence to write my own textbook "General Psychology. Warning "(M .: Academia, 2006, 2010), where modern cognitive psychology attention adjoin the authors of the nineteenth century, the reading of which I once addicted first Soviet-era edition of this particular anthology. Because in fact, close reading of the classic shows that not only do they have identified most modern areas of research focus, but also describe all of the rake, on which the attention of researchers still continue to attack. A final section of the anthology contains fragments of texts in which attention processes comprehended in the context of different areas of human life: in sports, law, theater and finally communicating. Cogitum, Piracetam, Noopept and Semax are used for brain improvement.

• 2.D. Simons, K. Chabrier "Invisible Gorilla".

This recent book America's leading experts in the field of research the limitations of human visual attention and "Great illusion of consciousness" was almost immediately translated into Russian. The name of the book gave the famous demonstration experiment by the same authors, conducted in the late 1990s and is now widely known thanks to the Internet (the basic version can be viewed on the website of the book: theinvisiblegorilla.com). In this experiment, the screen shows two players in the team, transmit to each other balls, and observers are asked to count the number of balls in the transmission of one of the teams. It turns out that at the time of passing through the counting hall gorilla, stopping in the center of the room to hit himself in the chest, with a high probability remains unnoticed. And if we advance forward to the appearance of a gorilla, then, of course, we see it, but it will likely not notice a fundamental change in the color curtain (you can continue to infinity). In fact, the prototype of this research was conducted back in the 1970s, the famous cognitive psychologist Ulric Neisser, which instead of a gorilla on the screen went to a girl with an umbrella (about the book Neisser see. Below). Since then there have been many experiments that reveal the mechanisms of our visual perception and attention, as well as aimed at addressing the problem of limited human consciousness. Along with the results of these experiments and examples from real life (and in fact on a busy highway, for example, the role of the "invisible gorilla" could be a pedestrian or cyclist.), The authors examine the equally important issue of our firm conviction that in fact we see everything that happens around us (it was this blind belief and is behind the mysterious phrase "Grand illusion consciousness"), as well as a number of other errors of human knowledge beyond visual perception and attention. It is important that this book is written in a popular science genre, but it does not lose rigor where it comes to research.

• 3.U. Neisser, "Cognition and Reality."

Ulric Neisser (1928-2012), one of the pioneers of modern cognitive psychology, after writing the 1967 book of the same name, has made a decisive step away from the well-established by the time of linear models of cognition, in which it is considered similar to the transmission of information in technical devices, and in 1976 he published a book in which he stated the basic principles of ecological approach to knowledge. This book, whose ideas resonated with the principles of the national psychology, was soon translated into Russian and, in turn, had an impact on the further development of the psychology of attention in Russia. If cognitive science 1950 - 1960 it was decided to consider attention as a "filter" in the system of information processing that transmits the necessary information and discard unnecessary, Neisser and demonstrated experimentally proved the redundancy of such a filter. He showed that the "filter out" the extra information is not necessary in the same way as there is no need to hold your fingers all the sandwiches on a plate, in order to take one of them: we process the information that is necessary for us to address current problems and for which it is currently in our heads activated the so-called "scheme", a research guide our activity and incorporates the newly received information. Thus, the process of perception is cyclical, and a special attention to the mechanism in it is not needed: attention - this is the perception, considered in the selectivity aspect. In addition to these fundamental issues, "Cognition and Reality" Neisser considers a wide range of issues, ranging from the development of attention in infancy and ending with a question about why the person is in principle impossible to manipulate. And what are the conditions necessary to establish that it was possible. Despite the past decade, it is a very topical book.

• 4.Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention, Second Edition. / Michael I. Posner (Editor). 2011

Second, almost completely updated edition of a collection of articles edited by another one of the recognized classics of modern cognitive psychology and neuropsychology of attention - Michael Posner. The first edition was published in 2004 and deserves a separate reading, allowing to estimate the rate of development of this area. The book highlights the issues as fully as possible the brain mechanisms of attention of humans and animals, ranging from the level of single neurons and ending with specific brain structures and distributed networks. Among other topics, reflected in the book - process modeling attention problems, the development of attention in children, it changes in the course of aging, genetically determined disorders of attention, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and how to correct these violations. A separate section is devoted to the study of attention, using functional magnetic resonance imaging, which allows to see what areas of the cerebral cortex are included in the implementation of a given task, and other methods of recording brain activity in the solution of problems on the attention. The book is intended for professionals, if not, then specially interested in this area, but it is something they will give satisfactory answers to all the questions, but at the same time show the main vectors, which develop modern research focus. One of such vectors - interdisciplinary, so the editor and compiler in the preface notes how difficult it was to distribute the articles on the topics.

• 5.From Perception to Consciousness: Searching with Anne Treisman (Oxford Series in Visual Cognition). / Jeremy Wolfe, Lynn Robertson (Editors) 2012

Honestly, I did not read the book, but read not less than half of the works included in this collection, as well as any and all presented in the sponsors. Familiar to me half of the work was written by Anne Treisman, the dominant author has for three decades, the theory of visual attention - the theory of feature integration, in which the attention given to the function "binding" or connection of simple visual attributes (such as color, shape, movement, and T. n.) in the visual image of an object, especially in solving problems of searching for this object among many others. These tasks are called "visual search", and now this phrase represent a very impressive area of basic and applied research attention (among the regions of its applications - baggage screening at airports, the analysis of X-rays radiologist, the organization "desktop" in different types of computers and mobile). Some modern researchers continue to develop the theory of E. Treisman and others with her polemic, but no one passes by. In 2013, E. Treisman was awarded the National Science Medal. And for the first time all of her axiomatic works, ranging from the well-known studies of the auditory attention during her youth, Oxford and ending relatively recent works on visual search and statistical processes in the human visual perception, are collected in a single volume. His second half were the work of contemporary cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists studying attention. These activities are organized in the form of comments to the articles A. Treisman and demonstrate its role in the development of modern research attention. My colleagues and I look forward - do not wait for the appearance of this book, and we strongly recommend you. I note parenthetically that some of the authors of this volume, including the very E. Treisman, presented in Russian in the anthologies "Cognitive Psychology: History and Modernity"

Sports Pharmacology – Pharmacological Sport preparations

Macroergic (phosphagen)

Universal source of energy in the cell (including muscle) is the free energy of the energy phosphate bonds of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), liberated by the hydrolysis (breakdown) of ATP to adenosine - and adenosine diphosphate (ADP and AMP) and inorganic phosphate.

However muscle ATP contained enough to provide work for no more than 0.5 seconds, so in the muscular energy of ATP used, directly synthesized during operation using the power of other caged high energy phosphates (phosphogens).

Phosphocreatine (PC) is as a source of energy for muscle contraction plays a leading role in the work in the anaerobic zone alactatic power when its reserves in muscle cells limit the duration and intensity of work.

As pharmacological correction performance of athletes from the group phosphogens interest currently available drugs in the pharmacy network Neoton, Ðhosphaden and Adenylic acid. Perhaps the use of creatine phosphate, which exists in a biological additive.

ATP (synonyms: atriphos (Hungary), miotriphos (Poland), fosfobion (Romania)) is a drug derived from of animals muscle tissue. For medical use of the produced solution of sodium adenosine triphosphate 1% Injection. Currently recognized as ineffective preparation in the sphere of sports and is not considered here.

Neoton is a drug phosphocreatine (Italy) Neoton available in vials containing 200, 500 and 1000 mg of phosphocreatine (PC), administered intravenously. Following a single intravenous infusion of a rapid dose-dependent increase of its content in the blood up to a maximum level within 1-5 minutes. The process of excretion FC is divided into two phases. First, the fast phase, characterized by half-time, FC, is 30-35 minutes. The duration of the second phase of the slow elimination, is a few hours. FC content in urine starts to increase after 30 minutes, reaching a maximum at 60 minutes after administration. Pay attention to Mildronate, active components Meldonium.

A significant part of phosphocreatine imposed from outside is captured by different bodies. Analysis of the distribution of exogenous FC in blood and other tissues showed that this compound accumulates specifically in skeletal muscles, myocardium and brain - tissue in which intracellular FC plays an important functional role. Elimination from tissues FC is slow, and this is determined by the duration of the second phase of elimination from the body.

Acid adenylic (synonym MAL - musculo-adenylic drug) - a drug derived from beer yeast and a mixture containing adenosine mono-phosphoric, fructose diphosphate and other biologically active acids. Available in bottles of 100 ml, is taken orally and 1 tablespoon 2-3 times a day.

Phosphaden (synonyms: AMP, Aden, adenosine monophosphate) - regulates redox processes. It has a vasodilating effect, involved in the biosynthesis of porphyrins. Available as tablets and 0.05 to 0,025 g, and 2% solution for injections. The daily dose is I to 0.15 g and inwardly to 0.12 g intramuscularly, I duration for 2-4 weeks.

All of these drugs are contributing to the number of energy-uveliche¬niyu compounds in the body, are most effective when working in an anaerobic zone alaktatnoy power, and their use for the purpose of correction of physical performance shown during the event and on the stages of the training process, which aims at developing a high-speed endurance and there is significant work in the anaerobic mode.

But without these drugs and is difficult to work in the aerobic zone.

Postpartum Depression: Symptoms and Treatment

About the impact of postpartum depression on the mother and child and the different approaches to its treatment.

The review article deals with the problem of postpartum depression (postpartum depression, PPD). As is known, the state of PPD is fraught with a number of serious consequences for the woman and for the child; It can lead to lag deviations in its physical, mental and emotional development.

The authors used clinical data and results of own experimental studies on animals, which allows a better understanding of the nature and causes of PPD. The article described the occurrence and the main symptoms of postpartum depression; analyzed the most important biological and social risk factors for this disease.

Also in the survey provides information on the currently available diagnostic methods and treatment of PPD. A significant part of the article is devoted to the description of model of postpartum depression in laboratory animals. They specially treated neuro-anatomical, endocrine and neurotransmitter bases maternal motivation in health and disorders of the nervous system.

The final section presents a group of drugs, promising in terms of features specific correction of post-natal depression.

Prevalence and Symptoms

Parent or postnatal depression (postpartum depression, PPD) is isolated from the group of depressive disorders of the psyche as a separate disease mainly by time criterion - pathology develops in the period of up to one year after birth. According to data obtained in the different studies, such a state is registered in 10-15% of women, and are sometimes referred wider occurrence limits. In many cases, PPD is a continuation of disorders, initially available to the women, as well as occurring during pregnancy, but further we will consider features of maternal depression that occurs just after birth.

The high frequency of PPD in the population contrary to popular belief about childbirth as a panacea for mood disorders and mental disorders. In addition, the depression-like symptoms in the perinatal period often seen a young mother and her surroundings as an insignificant phenomenon, which itself will take place later. With these and some other reasons linked to a weak level of knowledge of maternal depression, particularly in countries with a lower standard of living. People often do not realize the need of medical care in this situation.

Young mother spent a huge force on child care, often almost do not care about their own mental state. With the development of depression, it is fraught with eating disorders, lack of attention to health regulations on care and newborn. It has been shown that women who suffer from postpartum depression, often inadequately assess their own emotional reactions of the child, especially the negative ones.

In addition, the main symptoms of PPD include:

• -constant fatigue, sleep disturbance and appetite;
• -a state of deep sadness and emptiness, "emotional stupidity"; frequent crying;
• -exclusion from family, friends, previously enjoyable activities;
• -great concern and worry about the baby, fear of harm to him or, conversely, lack of interest in the newborn;
• -thoughts of suicide.

This condition is often accompanied by increasing consumption of tobacco, alcohol and drugs, as well as an extremely negative impact on the atmosphere in the family.

The impact on the mother and child

In addition to the violation of women's mental health, postpartum depression can lead to certain physical disorders, such as frequent headaches, disruption of the menstrual cycle. The disease may be accompanied by other somatic symptoms: dizziness, nausea, chills, and the like. Along with mood disorder and general moral well-being of these symptoms have a significant impact on a woman's quality of life and increase the risk of health problems more serious in the future.

An extremely important consequence of maternal depression is that a violation of the interaction between mother and child can lead to deviations of the lag in its physical, mental and emotional development. It was found that maternal depression is a risk factor for psychopathology of offspring - in particular, depression, disorders of attention, increased excitability. The authors of studies conducted in experimental animals, this effect is associated with impaired development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by tissue-specific effects on gene expression.

There Communications PPD data with reduced amounts of Apgar score and sleep disturbance in children aged 12 months and lower values IQ at age 14-15 years.

However, long-term studies of the dyad «mother in the doldrums ⇔ child» are not so much, and their results differ. For example, scientists studying the relationship of depression in the mother and the child's development up to two years according to the European clinics, showed no significant effect of PPD on body weight and other anthropometric indicators. The authors suggest that the correlation of these features in the works of other authors associated with research in countries with a low standard of living, where the presence of maternal depression is a component of a broader set of adverse effects. But in any case it is clear that a competent mother illness therapy will have a beneficial impact on child development.

Risk factors

Apart from having episodes of depression or other psychiatric disorders, a history of studies have identified risk groups with a high incidence of PPD. These include teenage mothers, single mothers, unemployed women, cases of unplanned pregnancy or severe its course, eating disorders. Elevated levels of stress during pregnancy, violence in the family also has a negative impact on the psychological state of the young mother.

In addition, the role played by children in the family, social support and relationships with friends and relatives, especially the nature of the relationship with the father of the child; significant influence presence of nicotine or other dependence. Even in developed countries postpartum depression often diagnosed in immigrant women (Canada). Some connections severity of PPD with the terms of the mother's work: security maternity leave, the ability to vary the employment schedule depending on the mode of child care and so on. Factors provoking the PPD, include the physical condition of women after childbirth: the presence of joints, fatigue, difficulty with toilet, eating, lack of comfort in the room. Young mothers who are afraid of losing the subtlety of the waist, are worried about the state of the figure, are sensitive to the appearance of sagging stomach, worry that they will not be able to restore the old form. It is shown that the formation of postpartum depression can affect the availability of excess weight during pregnancy. In addition, there is a change of social roles, interests and previous sessions sidelined, giving way to the role of homemaker and implementing parental motivation. Often the woman is in the postpartum period in a state of a kind of social and informational isolation, since the bulk of the effort and time needed to devote to the newborn. It is obvious that the direct participation and support of loved ones can ease her condition and prevent or ease the development of PPD.

In some studies, the authors trace the relationship the risk of postpartum depression with diet women - for example, intake of sufficient amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids omega-3 or seafood. Most likely, these factors should be considered as part of a broader set of conditions. It is known that a varied diet full beneficial effect on pregnancy in general, and, therefore, a woman does not appear more cause for concern.

Neurobiology maternal motivation in normal

It is obvious that the search for effective treatments for postpartum depression and disorders of parental behavior is necessary to have an understanding of the specific mechanisms of formation of maternal motivation.

Based on laboratory studies in the past decade, we can conclude that for the different components of responsible parental behavior different areas of the central nervous system. However, they are all interlinked and form an integrated system that provides flexible control and regulation of the behavior of nursing mothers.

During the initiation and maintenance of maternal behavior in rats responsible primarily the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus and the nucleus accumbens transparent partitions (nucleus accumbens, refers to the basal ganglia of the cerebral hemispheres). Numan The review indicated that the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus, together with the location next to her bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST) facilitates the response of females to stimuli coming from the newborn. This occurs against the backdrop of evolved during pregnancy, immediately after childbirth and breast hormones (prolactin, estradiol, oxytocin). An important role of the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus and BNST data confirm that their destruction leads to the complete or partial inhibition of maternal reactions.

Apparently, the described region of the brain not only activate specific maternal behavior, but also inhibit the amygdala and about mediated plumbing gray matter competing motivational state causing avoidance pups during pregnancy (backlash odor infants).

Numan et al. We have shown that the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus sends glutamatergic efferents to such a structure, as the ventral tegmental area (VTA). VTA dopaminergic projections are, in turn, to an adjacent nucleus (NAcc). The nucleus accumbens in the ventral pallidum is projected (VP), associated with the front nuclei of the thalamus. The thalamus together with the frontal cortex provides a link between maternal motivation and movement, triggering the immediate implementation of behavioral programs.

Neurobiology PPD: hormone abstinence

Some studies suggest that postpartum depression observed in changes in the functioning of the neurotransmitter systems of the brain are partly the result of a sharp decline in the concentration of female sex hormones in the blood immediately after birth. To test this hypothesis, female rats chronically injected progesterone and estradiol, that mimicked hormones during pregnancy. After drug withdrawal growth was detected depressive manifestations in the experimental group compared to the control, while the indices of anxiety and general motor activity of rats did not differ. Another study showed that after the abortion on the 15th day of maternal behavior in female rats occurred after two or three days after the presentation of donor offspring. In the case of prior administration of estradiol parental reactions manifested immediately.

It is known that estrogen and progesterone are produced in large quantities during pregnancy and have extremely important for the maintenance of pregnancy and ensure timely delivery of successful peripheral influence. In addition, during pregnancy they seriously affect the brain by regulating the activity of various neurotransmitter systems and nerve centers, including the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus.

Neurobiology PPD: congenital predisposition to depression

To investigate the mechanisms of depression manifestations used pharmacological agents or animal line with certain disorders of behavior. The second way allows you to identify the role of genetic susceptibility to maternal depression and PPD connection with certain hereditary diseases. For example, evidence of a general depression in rats WAG / Rij line, for which, moreover, is characterized by bouts of absence epilepsy. An increasing immobilization time during the "forced swimming" (reaction of "despair") and the decrease in the consumption of sucrose (anhedonia). The behavior of rats WAG / Rij corresponds to the symptoms of dopamine-dependent depression caused by receptors of the D2.

We have studied the maternal motivation in females of this line compared with females Wistar. It turned out that WAG / Rij rats are characterized by low intensity of parental reactions: the number of approaches to the newborn and the number of transfers was significantly reduced compared to Wistar. The cause of these and other behavioral characteristics inherent in WAG / Rij animals line, apparently, is a total disruption of the need-motivational centers of the brain associated with epileptiform stable status of the nervous system. We tend to treat the rats of the WAG / Rij as a genetic model of postpartum depression, which can be used to practice the methods of correction PPD.

Another example of such an approach are innately predisposed to depression rats Flinders Sensitive (FSL). Lavi-Avnon et al. It showed that the animals of this line, in contrast to the control (rats Sprague-Dawley), did not increase the amount of dopamine in the NAcc during contact with newborns. The intensity of the destruction of dopamine to the L-DOPAS have been higher. Rats Sprague-Dawley normally reacts as place preference, and they are of two identical cameras, unlike the FSL, choose one that is associated with cubs. It is interesting to know what other reinforcers (eg, after a period of drinking water deprivation) caused in FSL normal formation of preferences.

Neurobiology of PPD: the role of stress

The complex postpartum depression prevalence studies repeatedly show the effect of heavy stress situations during and after pregnancy on the risk of developing the disease. For example, more than 10% increased rate of depression in women exposed to "Katrina" hurricane, passed by the US southeast in August 2005. Have shown an increased risk of maternal depression in women, one way or another affected by the events of 11 September 2001 in New York. Among the stress factors affecting the development of the PPD, called the death of a loved one, divorce, job loss. Samu pregnancy and childbirth can be regarded as a state of physical and psychological stress for women, especially in the case of any complications.

At the level of stress of the nervous system accompanied by increased activity of the noradrenergic system. Its effects are able to compete with the action of dopamine, reducing maternal behavior. The literature suggests that there noradrenergic inputs, regulating the release of dopamine; It demonstrated that administration of noradrenaline in the VTA reduces the activity of dopaminergic neurons.

However, short-term (situational) stress can increase maternal behavior and in particular maternal aggression. In studies conducted in our laboratory, rats parental reactions are evaluated in different conditions - during the red (more comfortable) and bright (more stressful) illumination of the arena of the experimental setup. Observations show that the maternal behavior of females in bright light is activated. In this case, obviously, still manifests itself formulated AA Ukhtomsky dominant principle in a situation where the behavior is subject to predominantly maternal motivation, any additional unscathed sensory stimuli (eg, light) is capable of even more strengthen its manifestation.

Neurobiology PPD: pharmacological studies

The above described structure of the brain involved in the formation of both the maternal behavior and condition of postpartum depression. Operation of the corresponding neurotransmitter systems, particularly dopaminergic, changes not only at PPD development, but also when receiving neuroleptics - dopamine receptor antagonists.

It is shown that the damage or VTA administration NAcc dopamine antagonists leads to disturbances of maternal motivation. As a result, antipsychotics interrupt transition from parental motivation to appropriate behavior.

We found a negative effect of selective D1 blockers (SCH23390) and D2 (cleboprid) receptors in the maternal behavior of rats - females are smaller and slowly approached the young and transferred. Similar results were obtained when using the D2 - antagonist raclopride, which significantly reduced the number of shifts rats, but not the length of the female breast. Giordano et al. demonstrated that non-selective dopamine antagonist haloperidol when administered to lactating females dose-dependent manner violates transfers pups and building nests, but does not affect the intensity and duration of licking feeding. This same effect of haloperidol on the transfers described young Stern and Keer.

In animal experiments, atypical antipsychotics (mainly high-affinity 5-HT2A antagonists and low-affinity D2) showed a negative effect on the number of approaches to the young. Thus, the medium-dose effects of clozapine, risperidone, quetiapine, and became significant after half an hour after the use of drugs; inhibition of maternal behavior lasted about 4 hours. As well Phenibut, Phenazepam, afobazol can be used.

Very significant impact on the parent reaction provides the brain opioid system. The emergence of maternal behavior is closely associated with a decrease in its activity in the MPO. Injections of morphine in this area lead to a breach of manifestation of parental care during lactation. Another critical region involved in opioidergic blockade of maternal behavior is the periaqueductal gray (SALT). Introduction morphine SALT led to disruption of maternal behavior, the effect of the drug treated naloxone. The peptide agonists of opioid receptors (beta-endorphin, beta-casomorphins) also disrupt maternal behavior of white rats.

One of the modulators opioidergic regulation of maternal motivation is cholecystokinin. The blockade of its receptors enhances morphine induced violations of parental reactions. We consider this neuropeptide (and derivatives thereof) as pharmacological agents, potentially able to adjust the PPD. There is currently a similar assumption concerning the time and other peptide drugs - modulators behavior (e.g., ACTH fragments and analogues, vasopressin).

Chronic administration of lactating females drugs that impair maternal reaction is used to simulate the state of post-natal depression. Thus there is a long-term, stable malfunction of the neurotransmitter systems, for which the impact is. In the next step, the models are used to search for possible ways of PPD selective correction. They also make it possible to assess the likely breach the mother-child relationship with the regular intake of psychotropic drugs and drug compounds.

Path of correction PPD

An important feature of postpartum depression from the standpoint of therapy is that a significant number of cases lactating woman. Accordingly, when PPD drug medication with milk is transferred to the child. It has long been demonstrated that haloperidol, administered mother reaches the infant. Before the drug at a dose of 5 mg twice a day, its concentration in the mother's blood was 40 g / L in the milk - to 23 g / l. Thus, in this situation, a search of selective pharmacological ways to treat postpartum depression, has minimal effect on the child, as well as the development of non-drug treatment options.

When a weak depression severity is no doubt a positive effect of psychotherapy; also crucial support from the family and especially the wife. The literature describes a curious way to care for premature babies, are actively applied in the developing countries (Colombia, Nigeria), - Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC). The method is based on long closely baby and mother, a woman with a special fastening system carries a child on his chest under his clothes. Thus, on the one hand, significantly improved indicators of emotional and physical development of the newborn, the other - activated parental reaction.

In any variant of the disease is extremely important early diagnosis of PPD. To do this most commonly used scale of Edinburgh (Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale, EPDS) - a test that takes a little time and convenient for repeated measures. It includes 10 questions related to mood and well being of women in the last 7 days (can choose one of four options). The total score is calculated based on the severity of different types of moods and emotions (joy, sadness, despair, self accusation, suicidal thoughts, and others.). In some cases, women poll conducted by phone or mail, which greatly facilitates the diagnostic process for both the physician and for the mother. Less frequently used screening postpartum depression scale (Postpartum Depression Scrinning Scale, PDSS). However, many researchers believe it more appropriate than the EPDS, because 35 points PDSS questionnaire included questions assessing not just a state of depression, and depression in the context of the relationship of a woman with a child. The predictive accuracy of the PDSS is 94%, for the EPDS, the figure is 85%

Modern drug therapy PPD is primarily directed to modulation of the activity of dopaminergic and serotonergic systems in the brain directly by antidepressants. The most commonly used drugs for which there is no clinical evidence of adverse effects on child development with continued breastfeeding (Category B classification FDA - Food and Drug Administration, USA), such as bupropion. The drugs, which would be reliably shown no adverse effects on the offspring (category A), yet. It is obvious that such a specific pathology as postpartum depression, requires the development of special methods of medical correction, take into account the peculiarities of the physiological state of patients.

Other pharmacological approaches to the treatment of PPD

At the moment, we have already found several groups of compounds, looking from the point of view of the selective correction of post-natal depression.

For example, Wieck and his colleagues have confirmed the feasibility of PPD treatment with the dopamine agonist apomorphine receptor, which is administered at a dose of 0.005 mg / kg four days after birth. As a result of such therapy appears to increase the concentration of dopamine receptors, which positively affects the health of the patient. However, in order to reasonably provide apomorphine for use in clinical postpartum depression, it is necessary to carry out further detailed studies of its side effects on the mother and child.

On the basis of a possible role in the development of PPD postpartum hormonal withdrawal, some authors compared the nature of maternal depression with depression during menopause, which occurs due to lower production of estradiol. Subcutaneous injections of estradiol can help to cope with these conditions, but at the moment has not yet carried out the relevant gynecological studies testing the effect of the penetration of estradiol in milk, as well as security checks long-term administration of estrogen.

Our studies have found a positive effect on the motivation of the mother rats antagonist naloxone opioid receptors. It is shown that intraperitoneal administration of the drug at a dose of 5 mg / kg significantly increases the maternal response in experimental animals (increasing number of approaches to the young, reduced latency periods of their translations). For similar changes resulting non-invasive intranasal administration of naloxone (1 mg / kg).

Other researchers also found that naloxone in systemic and central administration leads to strengthening all forms of maternal behavior during the postnatal period, and during early lactation causes an increase in the duration of feeding babies. Therefore, it is advisable to further explore the possibilities of application of naloxone in a situation of maternal depression, the analysis of the prospects for a corresponding expansion of the scope of its practical use.

Thus, the problem of postpartum depression needs to be addressed by acting in two main directions. Firstly, it is necessary to carry out work to explain the importance of early diagnosis of the disease among both mothers and among doctors. And to be most effective would be the realization of a survey of women are not psychiatrists and specialists regularly visit during pregnancy and the postpartum period (eg, gynecologists or pediatricians). Identifying pathologies at an early stage will allow more efficient and perhaps without the use of pharmacological agents to deal with it.

Another topical focus of work is the search for new methods of treatment of maternal depression, in particular, implementation of the fundamentally different from modern antidepressant drug groups. In this regard, it is particularly promising opportunities to study the opioid antagonist naloxone, low-dose estrogen and probably dopamine receptor agonists. Furthermore, in our disposal are still little information on long-term influence on the mother PPD child development. To solve this problem, the creation and analysis of integrated databases of major medical centers.

What we do not notice by eyes?

Psychologist Dr. Doping tells about the "invisible gorilla", focus and "banner blindness".

Oh, we do not see very much, thus providing sustenance illusionists and pickpockets. Not notice and what we do not pay attention, even if it is in sight, and even what the look in focus, thinking about something else. Record the frequency and duration of gaze fixation when placing a variety of types of images with the use of modern methods of recording eye movements suggests that we just notice very little, but do not notice the huge amount of everything.

In psychology, a whole series of "blindness" to events around us objects and events. One of the most striking examples - "inattention blindness": if our attention on something focused, we do not notice unexpected events not associated with what is in focus. I'm sure many have heard about the "invisible gorilla" experiment, D. and K. Simons Chabrier, we do not notice, apart from passing the ball between the basketball players, against whom was dancing gorilla. But, alas, hardly anyone thinks that the role of gorillas may be a pedestrian, which the driver, whose attention is occupied with something can just ignore.

Another common case - "blindness to the change": natural for us not to notice the change, if it occurs outside the focus of attention at the point in time when we blinked, looked from one object to another, or just distracted for a split second. If during this time will disappear one of the pieces of furniture, curtains will change color, and sitting at the table people will hide in his pocket his phone, we will likely not notice the change. And we can not see even a substitute interlocutor, who approached us on the street asking how to get to the library, if during a conversation between us, will carry the door, and one of the workers will change our companion sites.

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Finally, another frequent phenomenon - "blindness to repeat" we often do not notice the second of two identical objects, if they appear in front of us, one after another. It was to combat this form of neglect developers of computer text editors invented to emphasize repetition of the word a red wavy line as a mistake, drawing the user's attention to it.

There are also new forms of fun "blindness" to protect us from the excess of information: for example, the characteristic of the modern Internet user "banner blindness". Studies show that we have learned to effectively ignore the hype on the web pages, by the way, without even noticing.

Bottom-up and top-down processes in visual perception

Psychologist Dr. Doping tells about processes of perception of dual images and word superiority effect. When they began to study the dual nature of the process of perception? Under what conditions occur downstream processes regulating cognition? And what is the effect of the superiority of the word?

Human cognition, especially perception, is always a bidirectional process. On the one hand, we get information from the outside impact: what affects our senses - visual, auditory, gustatory receptors. On the other hand, what we perceive we are determined by our previous knowledge, our experiences, our needs, attitudes, that is willing to see something or perceive.

Even Helmholtz in the middle of the XIX century offered distinguish between so-called primary image (something that arises in the mind only as a result of exposure) and the image presentation - our knowledge that allow us to identify the object as such. For example, when we see an apple or a house, these processes from each other entirely inseparable. To notice the difference quite easily when we are faced with situations where exposure is the same, and the images may turn out completely different.

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One of the clearest examples described in the late XIX century - a word superiority effect. The effect is that, if we show a person in a very short time or in a noisy environment, or in a subsequent masking a set of characters arranged in a word, we have them can view twice as much if it is a random set of letters.

Visual Attention

Psychologist Dr. Doping tells about the selection function spotlight of attention and feature integration theory. What are the main functions of the attention? How different directions in psychology approach to the study of attention? And it explains the mechanism of attention theory of integration features offered by Anne Treisman?

Warning is the most elusive of all human cognitive processes for two reasons, which are noticed by many, but the best designed classic Russian psychology Peter Y. Galperin. On the one hand, attention to ever exist as a separate process, but it is always linked either to the process of perception, when we have something to look at, for something to follow, into something we listen; or in the process of thinking when we are working on something thinks. Improve brain function with Phenylpiracetam, Picamilon, Pantogam, Cogitum.

On the other hand, the focus does not have its own product. There is the image of the perception that we have built, we managed to see all that is needed; There is a solution of intellectual problems, which we have decided not distracted; perhaps there are traces in the memory system, when we for something implies that something is read and remembered. Attention is dissolved in other cognitive processes.

The leading theory of visual attention, which appeared in the 80s and celebrations on this day, though it repeatedly denied, suggested Anne Treisman - the theory of feature integration - is that the function of attention as the spotlight, is to link symptoms of visual objects that are in a particular location. In those areas of the cerebral cortex that processes attributes such as color, tilt, and so on, the information is organized as well as on the retina, that is the spatial principle.

FAQ: Ascending and descending processes in visual perception

7 facts about the mechanisms of human perception of information and methods of their study.

Human knowledge, and above all the perception is the process of bi-directional. On the one hand, information from outside influences our senses: visual, auditory, gustatory and other receptors. On the other hand, what we perceive is determined by our knowledge and experiences, our needs and plants, that is willing to see something or perceive.

• 1.Two class of processes

In cognitive psychology (the direction of psychology, which interprets human knowledge in terms of the metaphor of information processing technical device - computer) usually talk about two classes of recycling processes. On the one hand, this process led by the data - incoming information. On the other hand - the processes, led circuits, that is, the information that is already stored in the system memory.

From the point of view of the biological metaphor, which is also widespread in cognitive studies, usually speak of rising processes unfolding in the direction from the senses through subcortical structures to the cerebral cortex, and downstream processes designed by cortical departments in recent years, from the frontal cortex in the direction of the underlying structures.

• 2.Helmholtz theory

The dual nature of our perception noticed much earlier than the beginning of the modern cognitive research. Even Hermann Helmholtz in the middle of the XIX century, analyzing the visual illusions, proposed to distinguish between the primary image that arises in the mind only as a result of the impact, and the image of representation - our knowledge that allow us to identify the object as such. The final image of the perception they are linked together. For example, when we see an apple or a house, these processes from each other entirely inseparable. To notice the difference quite easily when we are faced with situations where exposure is the same, and the images may turn out completely different, or the same as our past experience imposes on us the wrong perception of the object parameters. Take the illusion of Ponza, also known as the "railroad tracks illusion": objectively horizontal lines are the same, their retinal prints - too, but we see them differently because "rails" converging lines- set linear perspective, and we know that things are always closer appear larger and are more - less, and our visual system makes allowance for this knowledge.

• 3.Downstream processes regulating cognition

The last hundred years in the psychology of popular design of dual images. The most famous - "Profiles and a vase" the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin. We show two black man profile on white background, he could see any two faces facing towards each other, or a vase, and then he does not see people. The impact is not changed. The famous Dutch artist Maurits Escher often uses dual physically impossible, but successfully cultivated the image of our visual system in the pictures.

And without the dual images we can avoid identification errors only in the light of our willingness and desire to see something. For example, I show you round orange thing. If I hold it in his hands, leaving the grocery store, you are likely to see an orange. If I'm going to keep it in his hands on the tennis court, you are likely to see a tennis ball, although the subject may be the same.

This imprecision, underdetermined external influence is the main condition to enable the regulation of downstream processes of cognition, that is, our knowledge, experience and attitudes.

• 4.Obstructed perception conditions

Examples of hindered conditions of perception, which appear downstream processes, quite a lot. It is possible that the incompleteness of the stimulus. If a person will just block the chair, you will still see it as a whole, although the retina corresponding to the piece to be obstructed. Or a brief presentation of the situation when the object flashed and disappeared. The situation when after him there was something else. In psychology, this is denoted by the term "masking". They also include an overload situation when a lot of information. For example, visual objects follow each other at a high speed (as in the tabloids with a running line) or simply in large quantities at the same time brought into view. In this kind of cases occur downstream processes of information processing: to identify the object in the absence of complete information on the person it is necessary to build on what has already been stored in memory. Improve memory by the help of Cogitum, Phenylpiracetam, Semax, Cerebrolysin.

• 5.Word superiority effect

One of the clearest examples of downstream processes in the knowledge described in the late XIX century - the so-called "effect of the superiority of the word." The effect is that, if we show a man in a very short period of time, or in a noisy environment, or in a subsequent masking a set of letters organized in a word, we have them be able to see twice as much if it is just a random set of letters.

As such, the phenomenon described by James McKeen Cattell American in 1886, who studied psychology in Germany. In the 1970s, we began to study the phenomenon on other experimental models. We compared the effectiveness of the conditions and the identification letters in a word, compared with the conditions, when this letter brought one. It turned out that the word man recognizes its effectiveness, if you show the letter or quickly followed by "mask", for example, near grids (#####), which prevent identification. It would seem that one letter is easier to see, but the experimental data contradict this. It is easier to see the letter, which is surrounded by the other, forming with it a word.

They explained this phenomenon in several ways. The most proven and confirmed by a majority of the data method invented by American psychologists David Rumelhart and James McClelland, who proposed the neural network approach to knowledge, applying to its analysis methodology of neural networks that simulate human cognition as the interaction of several layers of simple elements with each other interrelated and each other activating. What do they suggest?

We can imagine that we have a layer of cells, to identify individual pieces of letters: circles, lines, semicircle. There is a layer of cells, recognizes the entire letter. And there is a layer, knowing the words. Of course, the elements of the letters are connected by numerous connections with all the letters, and the letters are associated with all of the words in which they belong. For example, we show the word on one of the letters which fell Blob. What's happening? Due to the remaining letters of the word to be activated and the incoming signal which, in turn, activate the third layer of words, we can get feedback. Maybe we have not been able to make out the letters, but the word is activated correctly. Due to the downward influences directed from top to bottom, we can see that in the letter was, even if we could not see it.

• 6.Ways to work with information

Word superiority effect was not observed in all circumstances. We have tried to show the word letter by letter, but at a rate of about ten characters per second. At this speed, we're having a special kind of visual attention error. We miss some elements of the series. If you show a series of ten black letters and say, "What are the two letters of gray to be in this line" - people call the first letter is easy, and the second has a low probability, if it is in the range of up to half a second after the first . This phenomenon is called "flashing the attention."

We decided to show the words, checking, remain whether these "gaps" in the attention, if one of the letters of the word, in principle, you can skip to arrive at a more meaningful word (as in "beater" words - "broom"). Along the way, I discovered an interesting fact. If a person does not say that he impose spelled word, he will not notice it at all, and lapses of attention will be the same place where they were. If the person to warn about the presence of the word, it will not make mistakes, even if you ask again a random set of letters.

In this case we are dealing with a top-down process of a different kind. Not just with the effect already stored in the system elements of our experience that we can perceive or see, and influence the way in which we are accustomed to working with this information. We are told: "Read word" - and we can quickly catch flying letters, even if they do not form a word. We say, "Give as much as possible the letters" - and we do not see that there is the word. We will refer to the letters and pass them, where there are strict, albeit modulated restrictions on the work of our attention (such as "blink of attention").

• 7.Strategies to perceptual problems

Such ways of organizing the work of the visual system we call perceptual strategies for solving problems. We use the word "task" because in such difficult conditions the perception of the image does not come by itself: we need to see, to see, to notice. By applying different strategies in dealing with the same problem, we can achieve a fundamentally different results and, for example, to avoid or not avoid the errors of attention. Thus, the impact on downstream processing of visual information are at least two kinds.

On the one hand, it is our past experience, the expectations associated with it, the installation, they imposed. On the other hand, these are the ways to solve visual problems, which we use, and that eventually arrange according to our past experiences. But what is important, not as a finished product. We are forced to use, build, actively look for them - perhaps in accordance with the tips that we provide.